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Ukm CULTURE AND WINE-MMIM 

IN CALIFORNIA • 



A PKACTICAL^MANUAL FOR THE GRAPE-GROWER AND 
WINE-MAKER 



BY ^ i 

GEORGE HUSMANN 
NAPA, CAL 



SAN FRANCISCO 

PAYOT, UPHAM & CO., PUBLISHERS 
204 Sansome Street 

1888 







Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by 

PAYOT, UPHAM & COMPANY 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington 







COMMERCIAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

PRINTERS 

34 CALIFORNIA STREET, S. F 



PREFACE. 

A book, specially devoted to "Grape Culture and Wine 
Making in California," would seem to need no apology for its 
appearance, however much the author may do so for under- 
taking the task. California seems to him, at least, as ''the 
chosen land of the Lord," the great Vineland ; and the in- 
dustry, now only in its first stages of development, destined 
to overshadow all others. It has already assumed dimensions, 
within the short period of its existence, hardly forty years, 
that our European brethren can not believe it, and a smile of 
incredulity comes to their lips when we speak of vineyards of 
several thousand acres, with a product of millions of gallons 
per annum. 

But, while fully cognizant of the importance of these large 
enterprises, it is not for their owners that this little volume is 
Avritten specially. The millionaire who is able to plant and 
maintain a vineyard of several thousand acres, can and should 
provide the best and most scientific skill to manage his vine- 
yard and his cellars; it will be the wisest and most economi- 
cal course for him, he can afford to pay high salaries, and the 
most costly wineries, provided they are also practical, would 
be a good investment for him. We have thousands, perhaps 
the large majority of our wine growers, however, who are 
comparatively poor men, many of whom have to plant their 
vineyards, nay, even clear the land for them with their own 
hands, make their first wine in a wooden shanty with a rough 
lever press, and work their way up by slow degrees to that 
competence which they hope to gain by the sweat of their 
brow. Of these, many bring but a scanty knowledge to their 
task; and yet it is from these, who cultivate their small vine- 



IV ■ PREFACE. 

yards with unceasing interest, and are willing to watch their 
wines with the grestest care that we must expect our choicest 
products. To help and serve this army of patient toilers, in 
whose ranks I have labored for forty years, here and in Mis- 
souri, with hand and brain, is the object and aim of this little 
book; I can fully sympathize with them, because I had to 
gather what little knowledge I may have, piecemeal and by 
hard practical experience in an almost untrodden field, and I 
wish to save them some of the dear bought experience which 
I had to pass through. If its pages become a practical guide 
for them, by which they can plant and cultivate their vine- 
yards, prune and train their vines, erect their wine cellars 
when they need them and are able to build them, and make 
good, drinkable and saleable wine, my chief object has been 
accomplished. To do this, I intend to be as concise and 
clear as possible, use no high-flown language, and avoid scien- 
tific terms as much as possible; talk as the plain, practical 
farmer to his co-laborers, and confine myself to simple facts, 
gathered from my own daily practice as well as from the 
practice and counsels of others who have labored long and 
successfully in the same cause. None of us are infallible, 
and the best way to gain knowledge is by exchanging ideas 
and experience among ourselves, comparing notes with each 
other. 

And this is especially necessary in each neighborhood, 
each valley and its surrounding hillsides in this, the brightest 
and most bountiful, but also the most diversified and variable 
State in the Union; where the climatic conditions as well as 
the soil change as quickly, according to each location as in a 
kaleidoscope. This makes it all the more necessary, that 
the vintner select his climate and soil carefully; and again, 
that he chooses such varieties as are adapted to his soil and 
climate. Then the climatic conditions will also materially 
affect his operations in wine making, curing raisins, etc., in 



short no man can hold fast to one invariable rule in this 
State, but must vary his operations with the location, the 
soil, the product of each season, and the climatic conditions 
prevailing during his operations, and which may vary every 
day during the vintage. And therefore this will be a Califor- 
nia book, first and foremost. I am fully aware that French 
and German, Spanish, Italians and Portuguese, have many 
eminent men who have compiled the experiences of centuries,^ 
and from which we can learn a great deal, especially in mak- 
ing and handling wines. But while I value it highly, and am 
willing to profit by it, yet all the conditions are so different 
there, that they can be no safe guide for us. Our rainless 
summers, the character -of our grapes, which always ripen, 
and are heavier in sugar, while they may lack in ferment and 
sprightliness, will necessitate different handling, and I believe 
that three seasons of active experience here, will enable a man 
with good sound judgment to make a more perfect wine from 
California grapes, than twenty years of practice in France or 
Germany. He has nothing to unlearn, is free from prejudices 
and antiquated methods, and is therefore more likely to suc- 
ceed, than the one who comes to the task with the precon- 
ceived notion that he knows everything, while in reality he 
has to take lessons every day. Therefore, though I will 
gladly use some foreign experience, and give due credit for it, 
this little volume will not be a foreign compilation, but a 
practical record of California experience, in the vineyard and 
wine cellar. That this may be concise, useful, and offer 
such assistance as practical men may need is my highest am- 
bition. The reader must not expect infallible doctrines, nor 
impractical theories, but plain rules, variable according to 
circumstances, and given in plain language, without poetic 
fiction or privilege. I shall try to deal with, and confine my- 
self to plain facts of every day occurrence. 

But while its principal aim shall be to become a guide to 



prefacp:. 



the beginner, I also hope to make it interesting enough for 
those who count their vineyards by the hundreds and even 
thousands of acres. I hope to give a true and full picture of 
this giant industry, none the less gigantic because yet in its 
infancy, and which owes so much to their enthusiasm and en- 
terprise. They will furnish the wines for the million, and it 
is truly a noble and proud task to furnish to every laborer a 
sound, cheap and palatable wine, at less cost than tea or cof- 
fee. We want their assistance to make this great nation tem- 
perate, convert them into wine drinkers, instead of drinking 
so called brandy and whisky, the banes of so many otherwise 
happy households. And for this object we may safely claim 
the help of the ladies also. I am proud of the active part so 
many of them have already taken in the viticulture of Califor- 
nia. There are not a few of them who successfully manage 
vineyards and wine cellars of hundreds of acres, and hundreds 
of thousands of gallons. May their numbers increase, and 
they become our helpmates in this as in every good work. I 
am sure that I commit no indiscretion if I mention the names 
of Mrs. Kate F. Warfield and Mrs. Hood of Sonoma Valley, 
and Mrs. Weinberger of St. Helena, as among the foremost 
in this State, vvhile the illustrious example of Madame la 
Duchess de Fitz James, who has already replanted about two 
thousand acres destroyed by the phylloxera, on her estates in 
Herault, France, has given the results of her experience to the 
public in several books, and inspired new confidence in the 
industry into the poor despairing peasantry of that district, 
who saw their only means of livelihood failing them, should 
not be forgetten here. I use the term " illustrious^' advisedly, 
not in reference to her rank ; for I am Republican enough to 
have little regard for the accidental privilege of noble birth; 
but a woman who does such noble work, winds a more shin- 
ing and lasting crescent around her brow than monarchs can 
confer, and birth bestow, and is worthy to be counted among 



PREFACE. VII 

the benefactors of mankind; I am proud of the privilege of 
being her correspondent, and thus acknowledging her noble 
efforts in our cause. 

This work was commenced in June, when the greatest 
rush of vineyard work was over, written in my cabin in 
Chiles Valley, surrounded by vines, w^here practical reference 
could be had every day and hour to the operations necessary 
among them. As it progressed, I became convinced more 
and more of the magnitude of the subject, and che impossibil- 
ity of doing it full justice in the space of a few months, and a 
few hundred pages. I hoped to complete it before the vin- 
tage, so that it could be of some use perhaps during its pro- 
gress. But unavoidable delays have drawn it out to the end 
of the vintage, of this truly abnormal year, abnormal in its 
late and destructive frosts, its hot winds during summer, caus- 
ing a great deal of coulure and its unusually hot w^eather 
during the vintage. It has been one of the most difficult 
seasons to handle a vineyard and wine cellar, which will ever 
occur here, I trust, and has taught us many and severe les- 
sons, among others the importance of thoughtful pruning, 
close attention to the growing crop, and diversity of varieties in 
time of ripening, so that we are not compelled to crowd the 
operations of months into a few weeks ; also the necessity of 
commencing the vintage as soon as the grapes are fairly ripe ; 
and of unceasing work during wine making. Vintage work 
commenced in Napa Valley about the middle of September, 
when it ought to have commenced a week sooner, and the 
hot and dry weather prevailing during its entire period even 
until now, ripened and dried up the grapes to a certain extent 
and thus fermentation became very difficult, especially in 
large establishments. I have availed myself of these practical 
lessons, I hope to the advantage of my readers, so that the 
delay may not be a loss altogether. Still, I am aware that it 
is impossible to do the subject full justice, and am far from 



VIII PREFACE. 

claiming that I could have done so. Now, when my task 
draws to its close, I ask their kind indulgence; to them I 
must leave it whether it has been done well or ill. I can 
only say that I have tried my best to be useful to them and 
to the industry at large. 

I cannot close these remarks without grateful acknowledg- 
ments to those who have aided so materially, by their work- 
ings and contributions, and without whose help my task 
would have been infinitely more difficult. I have drawn 
freely from the bulletins and report of viticultural work of 
Professor Hilgard of our State University, from the reports of 
our State Board of Viticulture, the valuable work of Mr. E. 
H. Rixford -'The Wine Press and the Cellar," from the 
ampelographic dictionary of Prof. Hermann Goethe, and the 
writings of Mr. Chas. A. Wetmore. I am also indebted for 
courtesies and valuable information to Mr. J. H. Wheeler, 
our present chief viticultural officer, to Mr. C. J. Wetniore, the 
Secretary of the State Board, Mr. W. B. West, of Stockton, 
Cal., Mr. Horatio P. Livermore, Mr. H. W. Crabb, Mr. 
Charles Krug, Mr. J. W. Hale, Superintendent Barton Vine- 
yard at Fresno, E. M. Maslin, Secretary State Board of 
Equalization; Mr. M. Denicke, Fresno; Mr. Juan Gallegos, 
Mission San Jose; Capt. J. W. Mclntyre, Vina; Mr. Shackle- 
ford, Vina; Mr. Smith, Vina; Mr. D. M. Cashin, Secretary 
of California Winery and Security Co., Mr. Julius Dresel, of 
Sonoma, and many others. I only regret that I could not 
elicit a single satisfactory answer responding to requests for 
information from Los Angeles, as I was anxious to have the 
whole State represented. But the reply from all was, that 
they had no time to give the necessary information. So, if 
my information from there should prove meager and incorrect, 
I must lay the blame at their door, as it was certainly my 
desire to give lull and true information. 

To the press of the State in general, and especially our 



PREFACE. IX 

local papers, our industry owes a great deal, and I have freely 
drawn from the information they give. They have always 
taken a lively interest in viticulture, and published all the in- 
formation they could gain, giving due prominence to our 
calling, and I take this opportunity to tender them our grate- 
ful thanks. 

Hoping that they and my readers will receive this volume 
with their usual indulgence and kindness, I remain 
Their fellow laborer, 

George Husmann. 
Oak Glen Vineyards, 

Chiles Valley, Napa Co., Cal., 
October 20, 1887. 



CONTENTS. 

Part I.— GRAPE CULTURE. 



CHAPTER I. 

ir. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX.- 

X,- 

XI. 

XII.- 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII.- 

XVIII.- 
XIX. 

XX.- 

XXI.- 

XX IF. 

XXIII.- 

XXIV.- 



— A glimpse at the Past and Present 15 

— Classification of Grapes 26 

— Propagation of the Vine, by Seeds 31 

— Propagation by Cuttings in Open Air. . ., . . 35 

— Propagation, by Layers 88 

— The Phylloxera Qnestif»n 42 

— Resistant Vines 67 

—Grafting the A^ine .111 

—The Vineyard, Location, Aspect and Soil 128 

— Preparing the Soil 131 

—How to lay out and Plant a Vineyard 133 

—What to Plant. Choice of Varieties 137 

—Cultivation and Treatment during the First 

and Second Summers 1 65 

--Cultivation, Pruning, and Training the Third 

and Fourth Years 172 

—Diseases of Vines and Remedies 182 

—Insects and Animals Injurious to the Vine.. . 199 
—Frosts and Hail, their Effects, Preventatives, 

and Remedies 203 

—The Vintage, Gathering tlie Grapes for Wine. 209 
—Picking the Grapes for Table and Market. 

The Grape Cure 214 

—The Vintage, Raisin ]\Iaking 218 

--Individual Enterprise 224 

-Co-oj)eration in Viticulture 244 

—Women in the Vineyard 247 

—Cost of Establishing a Vineyard, and its 

Probable Returns 250 



CONTENTS. 

Part II.— WINE MAKING. 

C H A P T E K J.— Making Wine 255 

II.— The Cellar 256 

'* III. — Wine-making Apparatus 259 

IV.- Making Dry Wines 265 

" v.— D'Heurevise's Air Treatment 290 

" VI. — Air Treatment of the Young Vine. Rack- 
ing 310 

" VII. — Claritication, Filtering, and Fining 317 

" VIII.— Ageing Wines 321 

IX.— Diseases of Wines ...324 

" X.— Cutting and Blending 329 

" XL— Bottling Wine 332 

" XII.— Concentrated Must 336 

" XIII.— Brandy and Vinegar 339 

XIV.— Wine Storage Houses. The "Pure Wine" 

Bill 341 

" XV.— Wine Statistics 357 

" XVI. — Wine as an Article of Commerce 360 

" XVII. — Wine as a Temperance Agent 364 

XVIII.— The Future of the Industry 371 

XIX.— Wine Songs 375 



I^A^RT I. 



GRAPE CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER I. 

A GLIMPSE AT THE PAST AND PRESENT. 

It cannot be expected, in a book which pretends to be no 
more than a manual for the grape grower and wine maker, 
that I should give a history of the industry in California. 
This, although no doubt it would be a pleasing task to note 
down its earliest beginnings and do honor to its pioneers, re- 
quires an abler pen than mine, one imbued with all the 
poetry of the subject, and with all the leisure to trace up 
their records, than can be brought into a practical outline of 
operations; which, with so vast a subject to handle makes it 
difficult already to confine myself to such limits as will make 
the book concise and cheap enough for every grape grower in 
the state. But a short outline of what has been done so far, 
would seem necessary and proper, to show what we may ex- 
pect of the future, and may well be expected of me. 

It is well known that the earliest beginnings were made by 
the Jesuit fathers at San Gabriel, with what has since become 
known as the Mission, or as it is erroneously called by many, 
the California grape. It is no doubt a true Vinifera; whether, 
as some believe, it was grown from the seed or from cuttings 
imported from Spain, it certainly bears no resemblance to our 
native wild vine, Vitis Calif ornica. A few enterprising men saw 
in its success there the probabilities of a valuable industry. 
Their experiments were rewarded with abundant crops which 
even surpassed their expectations, as our dry and equable 
summers favored the development of the grapes, and although 
it was thought in those days imperatively necessary to irrigate 
the vines, they found that the Mission always ripened its 
fruit, would produce large crops, under a very simple and con- 



Itl GRAPE CULTURE AND 

venient system of pruning, and make a fair drinkable wine in 
most seasons. But when they came to handle the product 
for wine, they forgot or overlooked that our long, dry sum- 
mers always give us a grape rich in sugar, and that every fruit 
has a period in its ripening when it is most lively and most 
sprightly to the taste. In Europe, where grapes do not ripen 
so fully, it becomes necessary to let them hang as long as 
possible, to bring out their full amount of sugar, necessary to 
make a fine wine; while here they are apt to become over- 
ripe, and as it needs a certain amount of acids to develop the 
full bouquet and sprightliness of each variety, the natural 
consequences of late harvests were very fiery, heady wines; 
either with a great deal ofalcohol,or very often badly fermented, 
unpalatable and milksour. They were not wines to 'Miiake 
glad the heart of man," but such as would make his head 
swim and feel uncomfortable. These were placed upon the 
markets as California hocks and clarets, and did not, as may 
be expected, please the palates of those who were accustomed 
to the finer and lighter wines of France and Germany. They 
pronounced them heady, earthy, and in many cases unfit to 
drink. The natural consequences of such a course was, that 
California wines fell into disrepute and could not find buyers 
at any price; grapes could not be sold at figures to pay for the 
gathering and working of the vineyards, and hogs were turned 
in to fatten on their products. This was one of the first mis- 
takes committed; owing partly to an inferior variety of grapes, 
partly to faulty management of the crop; and retarded for 
a while the further development of the industry. 

But still the incontrovertible fact remained, that some fair 
wines had been made, that the vineyards produced regularly a 
good crop of healthy grapes, and that sweet wines could be 
made, even of the Mission. Grape growing had started in 
Southern California, and on irrigated land, but it had gradu- 
ally spread to the more northern parts. Experiments had 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 17 

been made on land without irrigation, and it was found that 
the vines, though of a slower growth and bearing less, made 
a more delicate and higher flavored wine than on irrigated 
ground. Many progressive men, encouraged b)' the evident 
success with the Mission grape, imported cuttings of choice 
varieties for trial from France, the Rhine and Spain, often 
at heavy expense and risk; they were planted in different sec- 
tions, and mostly found to succeed well. The introduction 
of the Zinfandel grape, the first variety from which a creditable 
claret was made, also gave a new impetus; more care and 
skill was applied in handling the wines, and they slowly b'Jt 
surely found a market at fairly remunerative prices. Large 
wineries were built, more improved machinery applied, and 
the wdne makers who had started them, and could sell their 
wines to the dealers when six months old, at a fair profit on 
their labor, raised the price of grapes until grape growing be- 
came a very lucrative business again. Farmers found that 
the lands they had cropped with cereals until they were ex- 
hausted, and would not produce grain, would still yield large 
crops of grapes, for which they had a ready market at home. 
It is certainly not surprising if they became over sanguine, 
■until everybody and his neighbor planted grapes. As the 
Mission was known to be productive, and they could sell all 
they could grow, a good many vineyards of this variety were 
again planted, together with a large acreage of Zinfandel and 
Malvasia. The vineyards were, to a large extent, planted by 
men who had little appreciation of fine quality, but planted 
grapes simply for the money they could make out of them. 
Rich bottom lands, which w^re easily cultivated and pro- 
duced heavy crops, were naturally preferred to the less rich 
hillsides, with more laborious cultivation and lighter crops. 
The common system of. stool pruning, so convenient and easy, 
was used for all varieties indiscriminately, and many of the 
choice varieties, such as the Riesslings, Pinots, and others, 



18 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

did not yield under this treatment, therefore came into dis- 
repute as poor bearers, while with a little more care in stak- 
ing, tying, and pruning, they would have produced well. 
Thus the heavy bearers. Mission, Malvasia, Burger, and Zin- 
fandel, were given the preference, even at somewhat lower 
prices for the grapes, and the planting of really fine varieties 
followed by comparatively few. 

When Chas. A. Wetmore, our past Chief Viticultural 
Officer, made a trip to Europe, and especially to France, to 
investigate the resources and methods of those countries, it 
was but natural that he should be deeply impressed with the 
magnitude of this, the leading agricultural interest of France, 
and take the French as models in everything, cultivation of 
their vineyards, varieties of grapes cultivated, methods of 
wine making, etc., especially as the resemblance of climates 
is great in many respects. But he lost sight of the great dis- 
tance; of our rainless summers, our wet and mild winters, 
and our immense diversity of soil and climate even in the 
same vineyard; of our different and more costly labor sys- 
tem, which compels us to look for the cheapest and most 
simple mode of culture, compatible with thoroughness. 
While 1 do not wish to depreciate the great results obtained by 
the French vineyardists and wine makers, from which we can 
obtain most valuable information, yet we should consider 
that it has taken ihetii centuries to study the methods best 
adapted to their wants and surroundings, their soil, climate 
and varieties, and that we cannot hope to excel here, unless 
we do the same, and adapt our methods to our wants. 
Practical knowledge, gained here at home, even of a few 
years, will be a safer guide to us than to blindly follow the 
practices of a people thousands of miles distant, and who 
differ just as widely in their application among themselves as 
we do here. If we try foreign methods, appliances and vari- 
eties, let us do so cautiously, thinkingly, and with due regard 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 19 

to the differences which naturally arise i^rom all accompany- 
ing circumstances. I do not think that any one will question 
the fact that serious mistakes have already been made by fol- 
lowing French methods entirely and blindly, and especially 
in supposing that California wines, in their infancy and imper- 
fect .state of development, could already compete in the world's 
markets with the average of French and German brands, with 
their prestige of centuries, their intimate knowledge of the mar- 
kets and their requirements, the blends that will produce the 
most harmonious results, composed of choice varieties; when 
we had only the product of a few inferior varieties to offer in 
quantities to cut any figure in the markets, while our really 
choice samples were hardly seen or known, and then only 
to very few. 

It was a serious mistake to advise the unlimited planting 
of vineyards, and to create the impression that this State 
could not produce enough of good, cheap, wholesome clarets 
to fill, or ever glut the markets; and those who advised such 
a course lost sight of the fact, that, before we can count our 
share of the custom of the world, we must not only overcome 
the prestige of other nations, but also the prejudice which the 
inferiority of many of our earlier productions have created 
against us. The vintage of 1884, with its abundant and 
rather inferior product, followed by a panic in prices, was a 
lesson by which we should profit, as it should have taught us 
what we may expect. Had this been followed by an equally 
abundant and similar product in 1884, with the large area of 
additional young vineyards which came into bearing, what 
else could we expect but prices so low that they would hardly 
pay the producer ? This was averted by the very light crop 
of 1885, so that wines came up to fair prices again. But 
after the crop of 1886, which was a good one in quality as 
well as in quantity, perhaps as good as we can ever expect, 
prices have dropped again, and those who planted vineyards 



20 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

with the idea that the condition of the ' five preced- 
ing years would remain the same, that we could never 
produce enough of good, cheap claret to meet the demand, 
and have in consequence of it, planted mostly Zinfandel, 
often in locations not at all suited to that grape, on soil 
which will never produce it in perfection, find themselves 
confronted by low prices and slow sales. While it makes a 
really fine wine in choice localities, and especially on our 
hillsides, rich in iron and other minerals ; I have still to see 
the first really superior claret made from it on our rich bottom 
lands, where it has mostly been planted. Besides, it needs 
skill and knowledge in gathering and fermenting its grapes, to 
bring out all its best qualities, which many of our wine 
makers do not possess, and the time is coming when three- 
fourths of our Zinfandel and Mataro wines have to be sold as 
inferior, and only one-fourth will be classed as strictly fine 
wines, and sold at remunerative prices. 

Another mistake a'as made in discouraging, or at least not 
to recommend, the planting of fine white wine varieties, 
although we may safely claim that we have more first-class 
white wine grapes than red. We can produce choicer white 
wines to-day, to suit more different palates, and make a 
greater quantity to the acre than of red. Yet the cry has 
been: "Red wines are the universal drink;" therefore plant 
them, until the public has planted generally about four-fifths 
of red to one-fifth of white wine grapes. We see the effects 
of this alre^idy in the higher price and greater scarcity of 
white grapes and wmes, which bring one-third more in the 
market, and are more sought after than the red. What then 
will it be in the future, when the large quantity of red varie- 
ties planted will come into bearing? I grant that there is a 
larger quantity of red wine consumed in the world's markets 
than of white, but not in the proportion already mentioned; 
and I think we will do wise to plant more white varieties in 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 21 

the future, and perhaps graft some of our young and old red 
varieties with choice white ones. We cannot deny that there 
is a large part of the wine consuming public who do, and 
always will, prefer the more delicate white wines to the more 
astringent red, and we should try to suit their palates, especi- 
ally. when they are willing to pay better prices for them. 

Although wine making is a very simple process in itself, 
yet it needs great discrimination and judgment, as the product 
of each vintage is apt to be different, and the temperature of 
each season is also a very important factor in fermentation. 
It was evidently judging from the experience of the vintage of 
1884, with a product low in sacharine, late in ripening and a 
cool temperature, that Mr. Wetmore made the assertion, 
"that any one could ferment his grapes and make his wine in 
an old shed, and turn out a good drinkable wine, without 
cellars or costly fermenting rooms." The prevailing idea 
seemed to be, that the quicker fermentation could be excited, 
the better would be the wine, even if this had to be accom- 
plished by adding brewers yeast or flour. The season of 1885 
came, with entirely different climatic conditions, a different 
product, an early vintage, and what was the result ? Many, 
who themselves had no practical insight into the principles 
governing fermentation and wine making, had followed this 
advice, and put their fermenting tanks out in the hot sun, 
with no other covering than a few boards, and the tempera- 
ture over 100 in the shade. Fermentation set in with terrible 
violence as could be expected the grapes, though rich in 
sugar, were sluggish and without life from the long continued 
drought, and the result in a great many cases, were a sudden- 
ly checked fermentation with from 2 to 8 per cent, of unfer- 
mented sugar, or rather caramel in the wine. Mr. Wetmore 
was applied to, to help them out of this difficulty, and certainly 
brought a good deal of energy and good will to this herculean 
task. Following the advice of French wine makers, who are 



22 (tRATE CULTURE AND 

also known as the greatest wine doctors in the world, he ad- 
vised in rapid succession, brewers yeast, gypsum, fresh grapes, 
fresh ferment from other vats, then tartaric acid and tannin. 
But alas, in spite of all these remedies and their application 
many of the new wines, being " stuck" once, refused ''to go 
through " and had to be worked into sweet wines, or distilled 
into brandy. If our wine makers have gained in experience, 
it has been a bitter and costly one, although some of their 
wines remained sweet, and as wines became scarce, and the 
unfortunate practice still prevailed that the dealer had to 
buy a whole cellar, and had to take the good with the bad, 
these imperfect wines were doctored up, sent to the East 
and elsewhere during the season of low freights in 1886, and 
the markets flooded with indifferent wines by unscrupulous 
persons, which again damaged the reputation of California 
wines seriously, until now, their purity, on which we have al- 
ways justly prided ourselves, is called into question. The 
outcome of this was the enactment of the "Pure wine bill" as 
it is generally termed, by our legislature last winter, which, 
although perhaps susceptible of improvement and amendment, 
will at least show to the world at large that we understand 
wine to be the pure luiadiilterated^ferinented juice of the grape, 
the healthiest and best drink for the million. And what in- 
ducement can we have to adulterate it ? Surely grape juice 
pure and simple, is cheaper in our blessed climate, than any 
decoctions or sophistications ; and we need nothing else, as 
soon as we are fully informed about the processes of making 
it. To assist in this, is the principal object of this volume. 
Another mistake which many of our planters have commit- 
ted, is the persistence with which they have planted, and are 
planting even now, the vinifera cutting and vines, in districts 
affected and nearly destroyed by the Phylloxera. They ought 
to profit by the lessons taught in France and all over Europe, 
by the devastated vineyards which have reduced the crop of 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. '2o 

France to about one-third of what it was formerly, until the 
greatest grape growing nation on the face of globe cannot 
raise sufficient for her own consumption, and has to buy from 
all her neighbors to meet the demands of her customers. The 
devastations already made in our own vineyards w'ould have 
convinced the most skeptical, that they ought to avail them- 
selves of the only efficacious remedy, the planting of resistant 
vines, the cheapest, simplest and best preventative. If, instead, 
they persist in planting vinifera, they may find themselves in the 
near future with wine cellars and casks, but no grapes to fill 
them. But perhaps this may also be a blessing in disguise, as it 
may prevent over production, and take offagreat manyof theold 
vineyards of inferior varieties, making room for better kinds. 
Another great error and a crying evil at the same time, is 
the high price at which wine is mostly retailed in this State. 
Is it fair or prudent even, that wine which can be bought by 
the barrel at from 25 to 30 cents per gallon, should be sold 
by the glass, in the majority of our saloons, at 10 cents per 
oflass, and that o;lass be so small that it will take from 60 to 
80 to make a gallon ? How can we ever expect to see wine 
what it ought to be, the daily beverage of our people, en- 
livening and strengthening theni, and making them truly tem- 
perate, when it is retailed at such enormous profit, the re- 
tailer charging 6 to 8 dollars per gallon, for what costs /iv/i 
30 cents? The same may be said of our hotels and restau- 
rants; the majority not even keeping California wine under 
its own honest name, but selling it under French or German 
labels at 75c. to $1 per bottle. But I am glad to say that 
there are honorable exceptions to the rule, and that some of 
our hotels and restaurants already serve it on their tables in- 
stead of tea or coffee, if the guests prefer it. I know of one 
hotel even, and that what is called a " second-class" house, 
where guests are served with a good and plentiful meal at 25 
cents, and a bottle of wine is served with each two plates at 



24 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

dinner. This place alone uses 2000 gallons of light wine annu- 
ally; yet our so called first-class hotels, who charge their 
guests $3 per day, pretend that they cannot afibrd it. But 
the remedy is very simple. Let us leave such houses severely 
alone, and patronize only those who are willing to do the fair 
thing towards us, or buy wine by the gallon from the producer, 
keep it at our homes, and enjoy it with our families. 

I have so far reviewed only the wine interest as the leading 
and most prominent one. But it is far from being the only 
branch of grape culture followed. Our raisin industry has 
also assumed large proportions, and though it lagged and suf- 
fered under similar disadvantages as the wine industry, being 
also a new and untried business, with which those who en- 
tered into it were mostly unacquainted, yet it seems to have 
passed its worst period of supression in prices. The growers 
have learned better methods of curing, use more care and 
skill in packing, select their fruit and grade it better, so that 
many brands of California raisins already rank with the best 
imported goods and bring the same price. Our dry falls 
greatly favor this business, which bids fair to assume gigantic 
proportions, and to offer a pleasing and wholesome occupa- 
tion for women and children, certainly more wholesome and 
pleasant than the work in crowded factories. 

The growing of grapes for table and market is also receiv- 
ing a new impetus through cheaper Eastern freights and bet- 
ter methods of packing, quicker transportation, and improved 
shipping facilities. There seems to me nothing to prevent, 
that California fresh grapes should be in the market, from 
August to February, and even later. Our earliest locations, 
at Vacaville and Pleasant Valley can furnish ripe grapes in 
August, while the Santa Cruz mountains furnished them 
fresh from open vineyard, without the slightest touch of frost, 
last winter, in January; they can go through to New York in 
six days, and at moderate charges for freight, where Eastern 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 25 

freights and time of transit formerly were almost prohibitory. 
In summing up the past and looking at the present, what 
do we find ? A great industry, which forty years ago was 
hardly thought of; an untried field, over which we have 
worked and experimented with bright hopes, alternated with 
discouraging reverses, but which has already brought forth re- 
sults of which we may feel justly proud, and which ought to 
encourage us to renewed exertions in the future, We have 
already produced wines which can safely compete with the 
best foreign importations, and have the great advantage of 
being sold at less than half the price. I speak knowingly, for 
I have had frequent opportunities of testing the best importa- 
tions, even including the finest Johannisberg, Forster 
Traminer, Chateau Yquem, and Clos Vougeot; and with only 
four exceptions have tasted as good and better wine in Cali- 
fornia. We can produce a good, sound wine every season, and 
will have a great improvement in its general quality in the near 
future. That manifold mistakes were made and errors com- 
mitted was but natural; and I have enumerated some of them 
not actuated by a spirit of fault finding, but by the conviction 
that we must know our shortcomings to enable us to do 
better in the future. We can make all kinds of wines, from 
the light, pleasant wines of France and Germany to the 
heavy and fiery ports and sherries of Spain and Portugal, and 
they have already been introduced in England, Germany, 
Holland and Belgium, the Sandwich Islands, even Japan and 
China, Mexico and all the States and Territories. If they 
have not always given satisfaction, they can be made, and 
will be made to do so as soon as could possibly be expected. 
The State has fostered and encouraged the industry, by 
creating and endowing the State Board of Viticulture; it is 
well represented at our State University, and thousands of 
industrious and thinking people have chosen it as their occu- 
pation. We can boast already of the largest vineyards and 



26 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

wineries in the world. We have the finest and most uniform 
climate, the most diversified soil and aspects. Nature has 
designed this to be the great Vineland, the France of the new 
Continent, where every one can " sit under his own vine and 
fig tree." Be ours the happy task to work out this problem, 
and prove worthy of it, profiting by the errors of the past, 
with hopes that never flag, of its happy ultimate accom- 
plishment. 



CHAPTER II. 

Classification of Grapes. 

I shall not attempt elaborate descriptions of all the species 
now found by botanists, as they would be of little practical 
use to the vineyardist. Suffice it to say, that the late Dr. 
George Engelmann, one of the keenest observers of nature, 
found a striking distinction in the seeds, and classified them 
into fourteen species, in the following order: i. Labrusca 
or Northern Fox. 2. Candicans or Mustangensis. 3. 
Carribbea or Caloosa. 4. Californica. 5. Monticola or 
Mountain Grape. 6. Arizonica. 7. .^^stivalis or Summer 
Grape. 8. Cinerea or Ashy Winter Grape. 9. Cordifolia 
or Winter Grape. 10. Palmata or Rubra. 11. Riparia 
or River Grape. 12. Rupestris, Sugar or Bush Grape. 
13. Vinifera or European Grape. 14. Rotundifolia, Vul- 
pina or Southern Fox. The accompanying cut will illustrate 
the form of seeds and natural size of them. 





11 



14 



<9>W (^.^ 



17 




21 





Fig 1. 



SEEDS OF CERTAIN AlERICAK AND EUROPEAN VINES 



-V. ^^stivalis, 
-V. Cordifolia, 
-V. Candicans, 
-V. Cinerea, 
-V. Riparia, 
~V. Rupestris, 
-V. Labrusca, 



10.— Isabella, 
11.— Taylor, 
12.— Clinton, 
13.— Delaware, 
14. — V. Vinifera, 
15. — Chasselas, 
16. — Cabernet, 



17. — Jacquez, 
18. — Herbemont, 
J 9.— Rulander, 
20 — Eumelan, 
21.— York-Madeira, 
22. — Scuppernong, 
23.— V. Solonis. 



28 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Mr. T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, has lately made 
another classification according to geographical distribution 
of the native American species. He classes them in seven 
groups, as follows: 

1. Riparian Group, a, Riparia, b, Rupestris, c, Nuovo 
Mexicana, d, Arizonica. 

2. Cordifolian Group, a, Cordifolia, b. Palmate. 

3. Cinerea?i Group, a, Cinerea, b, Monticola. 

4. ^^stivalian Group, a, Northern form, b, Southeastern 
form, c. Southwestern form: 

5. Vulpitia Group, a, Labrusca, b, Carribbea, c, Candi- 
cans. 

6. Meaty fruited, soft rooted group, a, California, b, Vini- 
fera. 

7. Rotundifolia or Southern Fox. 

Of these, we are only more immediately interested in the 
following, which have either been introduced into this State 
or found wild ; these are, i, Labrusca, 2, Riparia, 3, M's,- 
tivalis, 4, Rupestris, 5, Arizonica, 6, Californica, 7, Vinifera. 

The first six are chiefly valuable as stocks to graft upon, 
though some of the varieties may prove valuable for their 
fruit; while from the last come all our leading grapes for wine, 
raisins and table now cultivated in this State. 

I. Labrusca, or Northern Fox, is found wild east of the 
Rocky Mountains, mostly on the Atlantic shore, from Can- 
ada to the Gulf, generally in moist woods or thickets. Leaves, 
large and thick, sometimes entire heart shaped, sometimes 
lobed, dark green above, covered with whitish or rusty wool 
on the under side; berries, rather large, purple or dark amber, 
with tough pulp and foxy or musky odor. The Catawba 
and Isabella, also the Concord, are the most generally known 
cultivated varieties of this class, and are occasionally grown 
for market in this State. Its roots are tough and wiry, and 
have a tendency to run along the surface, which hardly fits 



-WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



the class for our dry soils and summers. Only partly resis- 
tant to phylloxera, although more so than Vinifera. 

2. Riparia, Riverside Grape. In its wild state we distin- 
guish two distinct forms, the smooth leaved, and downy 
leaved or pubescent. Its homes are the bottoms of larger 
streams, especially of Missouri, Illinois, Kansas and Nebraska, 
where the smooth leaved form is most common, while the 
downy leaved appears mostly in Texas and New Mexico. 
Both are equally valuable as grafting stocks. Wood, thin 
and long, long jointed; the leaves heart shaped, with acute 
points, deeply serrated and sometimes lobed; in the smooth 
variety light green above and below, without down ; in the 
pubescent, wooly below, and the stems covered with light 
hair. Berry, small, black, without pulp, and sprightly, dark 
colored juice. Roots, thin and wiry, hard, spreading; seems 
to succeed in nearly all soils; propogates readily from cut- 
tings. The wild vines are entirely resistant. The most 
known cultivated varieties are Clinton, Elvira, Taylor and 
others, some of them evidently hybrids of Labrusca and Rip- 
aria. 

3. j'Estivalis or Sumn-ier Grape. Vine a strong grower, 
healthy and hardy, but difficult to propogate from cuttings. 
Leaves, large, thick, downy beneath, generally lobed, though 
some varieties are not. Found mostly on uplands, and is 
eminently fitted to withstand drought, as it has strong, very 
hard roots, which strike deep into the soil. A fine stock for 
grafting the Vinifera, as they take readily. Berries, small, 
black with blue bloom, not pulpy, and some of fine quality 
for wine. The Herbemont, Lenoir, Rulander and Cunning- 
ham are the most prominent cultivated varieties. 

4. Rupestrts. Bush or sugar grape, Southwest Missouri, 
Arkansas and Texas, Vine bushy, with many small branches, 
stocky; leaves small and shining above and below, heart 
shaped; berry small, black, with blue bloom, propagates 



30 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

readily from cuttings; vine makes a good grafting stock, but 
is apt to sucker; roots thin and wiry, resistant. 

5. Arizonica. Arizona and New Mexico. Resembles 
Rupestris very much, but is a more upright grower. Does 
not seem to take the graft readily, and has not so far full- 
filled the expectations of its disseminators. 

6. Califortiica. Generally found wild along all the streams 
of this State, w^here it often attains very large size. Wood 
grayish, long jointed, a strong grower, with thick, fleshy, 
soft roots, which go straight down. Leaves heart shaped, 
downy and wooly; berry small, black, without pulp, but very 
large seeds. It takes the graft readily, and, should it prove' 
entirely resistant, which is not fully proven yet, will make a 
valuable stock on deep, moist soils, while not so well 
adapted to dry hillsides. 

7. Vinifera. To this class belong all of our leading varie- 
ties. It is the old European or Asiatic grape. Too well 
known here to need any more minute description. 

This much seemed to be necessary to give the reader a 
clear understanding and avoid repitition and minute descrip- 
tion. Those who wish to investigate this subject further will 
find the essay by Mr. T. V. Miinson, on Native Grapes of 
the United States, read before the American Horticultural 
Society, very interesting, which can be obtained from the Sec- 
retary, Prof. H. W. Ragan. 



WINE-MAKINO IN CAJ.IFORNIA. 31 



CHAPTER III. 

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 

I. By Seeds. 

This may be divided into two separate parts, according to 
the object the propagator has in view, namely: 

I. To raise new and improved varieties. 

AVhile the raising of vines from seed with this object in 
view^ is more a labor of love than of actual profit, its influ- 
ence on grape culture has been so great, and we are already 
so largely indebted to its zealous followers, that it can not be 
entirely omitted here. All our fine varieties are either acci- 
dental or carefully hybridized crossed seedlings; and there 
would be no improvement in varieties without this. The im- 
mense progress in American varieties within the last forty 
years, when only half a dozen varieties were known, of w^hich 
the Catawba and Isabella may be considered as fair samples, 
are due to the labors of such men as Rogers, Wylie, Camp- 
bell, Ricketts, Miller, Rommel and Munson, who have orig- 
inated varities for their climate and purposes more valuable 
than our Viniferas would be, and it certainly required a long 
line of improved seedlings to make up the long list of excel- 
lent varities of Vinifera we now cultivate here and in Europe. 

To begin then at the beginning; choose your seed from a 
good stock. Take a good variety which you w^ould like to 
improve in a certain quality, be it size or form of berry or 
bunch, fruitfulness, time of ripening, or flavor. If a vine 
stands next to the one you take the seeds from, which has 
the desired quality, and which may have impregnated the 
bloom, so much the better, your chances are so much more. 



32 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Choose the finest bunch, the most perfect berries, and either 
take the seeds from them fresh, or keep them over winter 
in their pulp or, if cleaned, keep them in sand in winter until 
they can be sown in early spring. They will not germinate 
so readily if allowed to become dry. Make a bed of finely 
pulverized soil, the deeper the better; sow in drills about one 
foot apart, and the seeds about an inch apart in the rows, 
covering about an inch deep with finely pulverized soil, press- 
ing it lightly to the seeds, either with your foot or the back of 
the hoe. When the young plants appear, w^hich will gener- 
ally be within six weeks, keep them clean and well cultivated 
through the summer; in the fall, take them up carefully so as 
not to mutilate their roots, and heel them in well-drained, 
fine soil; covering up nearly to the top to keep them during 
the winter and preserve their roots in the best condition. It 
will be well, during the summer, to look over them frequently, 
and if any of them show signs of disease in leaf or growth, 
or are puny or sickly, pull them up, as they will not be 
worth keeping. It may also be well to shade the young 
plants for the first month or so, to prevent the sun from 
scalding them while yet tender; and if any of them grow 
very strong, give them small sticks for support. In the fol- 
lowing spring they may be transplanted to their permanent 
location in vineyard or garden. The ground should be mod- 
erately light and rich, and loosened, if at all tenacious, to the 
depth of eighteen inches. 

Make a slanting hole with the spade about a foot deep, 
then shorten the young growth on the vine to about six inches 
above the collar, (the part of the vine where the growth from 
the root begins). Then spread the side fibres well, letting 
the top or leading root go down to the bottom of the hole, 
and set the vine about an inch deeper than it stood in the 
nursery. Fill up with well pulverized soil, pressing it lightly 
with the foot. They may be planted the usual distance 



WINi!;-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 33 

apart in the vineyard, and when the young growth appears, 
leave but one or two of the stockiest and strongest shoots. 
Allow all the laterals to grow on these, as this will make 
them short jointed and stocky, Cultivate well and frequent- 
ly, keeping the soil loose and mellow. 

This second season the young seedlings ought to make a 
growth of a few feet of short jointed wood. This should be 
cut down to three or four buds the next spring. These, if 
the growth is strong enough to develop fruit buds, will gener- 
ally show^ fruit, or if any of them look very promising in leaf 
or growth, fruit may be obtained sooner by grafting the wood 
on stronger vines. The first fruit is generally imperfect, and 
will increase in size of bunch and berry for several years. 
If the quality is good, and they show a" fair degree of fruitful- 
ness, they may be considered promising, although it will gen- 
erally take several seasons to develop them fully. 

Quite a number will prove barren, or not of desirable 
quality. These can be grafted afterwards with the most 
promising or some good old variety; therefore there is really 
but little loss, while a lot of seedlings are always a very inter- 
esting study, which may be very valuable in its results. 

2. To raise seedlings as stocks for grafting. 

Here we have an entirely different object in view, and our 
aim is simply to raise the most^ uniformly healthy plants, of 
the strongest and most even growth. The wild species of our 
Tines are more apt to produce these than the cultivated varie- 
ties; therefore the seeds of them are preferred. Whether 
these had better be Riparia, California, or .4^stivalis, we will 
consider in the chapter on " Resistant Vines.'* 

A pound of seed of these wild species will generally pro- 
duce, if good and fresh, from 2,000 to 3,000 plants, and as 
it can now be had cheap from reliable men, who make it 
their business to gather it in its native region, it affords a very 
cheap and convenient way to raise good stocks, as the price 



34 GRAPE CULTimE AND 

is but from one to two dollars per pound. Prepare a piece of 
good soil thoroughly, deeply plowing and cultivating it, level- 
ing off well with harrow and clod crusher. It will be more 
economical to work these with a horse cultivator during the 
summer; therefore the drills can be made three feet apart. 
The seed, which generally is dry when received, even if 
gathered the foregoing fall, should be prepared about a week 
before sowing, by soaking in hot, but not boiling, water, in 
which it may remain for twelve hours, when the cold water 
may be poured off, and another application of hot water 
given. The next day pour it into a sack to drain off the 
water, and lay it in the sun during the day, moistening the 
sack whenever it becomes dry, and keeping it under cover at 
night. The best time for sowing in this State is in February 
or March; in frosty locations it may be well to wah a little 
later. It generally takes about three weeks to a month be- 
fore the young plants appear, and all danger of frost should 
be passed then. 

Sow in shallow, broad drills, so that the seeds are at least 
an inch apart, if you wish to raise good stocky plants; cover 
about an inch deep, with fine soil, pressing the ground to the 
seeds. The young plants should be kept clean and well cul- 
tivated, a shovel cultivator to "straddle the rows," so that one 
share goes on each side of the row, and run through them 
every week or ten days, will keep the soil loose and mellow, 
although they should also be hoed once or twice. In the 
fall or early in winter, when the rains have softened the 
ground, they can be dug by running a tree or grape vine dig- 
ger as the nurserymen use them, under the rows and pulling 
up the young vines by hand; or if such a tool is not to be 
had, a furrow plowed away from them on each side, and lift- 
ing them with the spade. I sort and grade them generally in 
two classes, as it will make a more even plantation, tie them 
in bundles of loo each, and " heel them in," in beds slightly 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 35 

raised above the surface, when they are ready for planting in 
vineyard, treating them as described before. In one or two 
years, they are ready for grafting, and generally make very 
fine and even stocks, as they can be transplanted with nearly 
their entire roots and therefore receive very little check. 
While planting, however, the roots should be kept in a pail of 
water, to keep them moist and fresh. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PROPAUATION PA' CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR. 

I am aware that a great majority of California vineyards are 
planted with cuttings planted directly in the vineyard. While 
this makes very good vineyards sometimes, if the circum- 
stances are favorable, yet I do not recommend it, and think 
it the cause of the great number of uneven stands we see in 
the State. Moreover, all varieties do not root equally well, 
and it is always safer to plantin nursery, and remove the plants 
into vineyard next spring. 

Most of the Vinifera varieties root readily from cuttings, 
but as I do not adviss planting this, on account of the danger 
from phylloxera , and as nearly all American species do not 
root quite so readily, it is all the more prudent to plant in 
nursery first. 

Of the American species, the varieties I would chiefly 
recommend for stocks, are the wild Riparia and the y^Estiva- 
lis, for reasons which will be given in the chapter on " Re- 
sistant Vines." The wild Riparia roots readily, while of the 



36 GKAPE CULTURE AND 

^-Estivalis class only the Rulander and the Cunningham root 
well, the Herbemont and Lenoir will turn out about 50 per 
cent, and the Nortons Virginia and Cynthiana hardly any. 

The cuttings can be made any time after the leaves have 
dropped until the buds begin to swell, it is best, however, to 
make them in the first part of winter, when they can be 
heeled in bundles, to keep until planted. Neither the very 
large and pithy, nor the very small wood near the ends should 
be selected, but rather the medium sized, short-jointed wood, 
which will not only be more sure to root, but also make a 
firmer and better plant. Nor is it advisable to make the cut- 
tings 18 inches or even two feet long, as has been the prac- 
tice in this State, very likely derived from the old European 
vintners, who follow that practice for no other reason than 
because their father and grandfather did so before them. 
Forty years of nursery practice, commencing with 18 inch 
cuttings, and ending with 9 to 10 inches, has taught me that 
the longer the cutting, the more feeble and small will be the 
roots they make ; small puny fibres, distributed over the 
whole length, instead of the strong, well developed root sys- 
tem at the base of the shorter cutting. If the lower end of 
the cutting or plant is buried in the cold hard soil, below the 
influence of sun and air, so necessary to all plant life, how- 
can we expect it to make strong, healthy roots ? Here in 
California it may be well not to go into extremes, but a cut- 
ting of 12 inches, from the lower bud to the upper, is long 
enough, and will make a better vine than 18 inches. That 
the wood should be well ripened and sound, is, of course, the 
first consideration. 

The vines may be pruned in fair weather, and the clippings 
taken in to be worked up during rainy days, but it should 
never be allowed to get dry, as that destroys its vitality. Cut 
close below the lower bud, making the cut somewhat slanting, as 
the accompanying illustration will show, leaving about an inch 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



Fig 2. 



; of wood above the upper bud 
I or eye. If a small piece of 

the old wood, or the whorl of 

buds, where it starts from the 

old wood, can be left so much 
i the better, such cuttings are 

almost sure to grow. They 

are then tied in bundles of 

250 each, the lower ends 

made even. I use leather 

straps and buckles to draw a, ordinary cutting ; B, cutting with 

old wood (mallet cutting) ; C, cutting 
them together and then tie Avith longitudinal sections of old wood. 

firmly with annealed wire No. 16. This is a much better tie 
than twine or bale rope, as it will not rot, and is much cheap- 
er besides. The bundles are then "heeled in" or buried in 
the ground, in trenches made for that purpose ; inverted, that 
is placed on their tops, and the butts well covered with 3 to 
6 inches of soil. Inverting them has the object to place the 
lower end of the cutting, which is to form the callus or roots, 
closer to warmth and air than the top buds. It wall thus cal- 
lus first, while the top buds remain dormant, and is ready to 
throw out rootlets as soon as planted, while with the tops 
above, they often start to grow before there is anything to 
support them, and then wilt dow^n afterwards. 

In the spring I wait until the ground is warm enough, gen- 
erally until April in Northern California. Select a piece of 
good, deep soil for the Nursery, which should be made mellow 
and friable by repeated deep plowing, if not naturally so. 
Then throw out slanting trenches with the plow, deepening 
them with the spade if necessary, three or four feet apart. 
Put in the cutting as close as convenient, say two inches 
apart in the row, slanting them enough so that the lower end 
is 9 inches below the surface, while the upper bud is about 



38 GRAPE CULTUKE AND 

even with it. Draw in fine soil with the hoe, and firm it 
well around the base of the cutting, as it is important that it 
should be closely packed around it, filling up to the top of 
the cuttings, and if some fine soil is drawn over it, it is all 
the better for this mulch. Keep clean with hoe and cultiva- 
tor, and the soil stirred frequently during the summer, to 
keep it mellow and moist. I have found this much better 
than irrigating, which makes the ground cold and hard, dur- 
ing a time when the young plant needs warmth as well as 
moisture. If the ground is well stirred, it will never dry out 
deep enough to injure the roots. The plants can then be 
taken up in fall or early winter, and handled and planted 
similar to seedlings. If for particular reasons, it should be- 
come necessary to plant cuttings immediately in the vineyard, 
I would advise to plant two, instead of one, making a hole 
with a spade, and getting the base of the cuttings about six 
inches apart, so that, if both should grow, one can be re- 
moved and planted elsewhere. In this manner, we can avoid 
vacancies, as either one or the other will usually grow. 



CHAPTER V. 
Propagation bv Layers. 
This is but little practiced in California, owing to the 
facility by which all the Vinifera species can be propagated 
by cuttings. It is, however, valuable in propagating such 
varieties as have very hard wood and will not root readily 
from cuttings, especially of the yl^^stivalis class; and for 
filling vacancies in old vineyards. I will first describe the 



WIXE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



;39 



process which we call surface layering, for the purpose of 
raising a large number of young plants from hard wood 
varieties. 

Choose a young cane of last seasons growth, starting as near 
to the base of the vine as possible. It will be well, the sum- 
mer before, to leave some of the lowest shoots for that pur- 
pose, growing them as long as possible. This cane is pruned 
as long as it has well developed, sound buds; the ground 
made mellow below the vine, and a shallow trench, say two 
inches deep is drawn with the hoe as long as the cane. This 
is then bent down into the trench, and fastened on the bottom 
with small pegs or wooden hooks. (Fig. 3.) Each bud on the 




Fig. 3. 

cane will generally produce a shoot, which will grow upwards, or 
should be made to do so, when the trench is filled up around 
the shoots, which is done w^hen they are about a foot high. 
Each of these shoots will then throw out roots around its base, 
and in fall or winter they are dug, beginning at the furthest 
end of the cane, cutting the roots with the spade at proper 
length; the plants are divided by cutting behind each 
shoot with the pruning shears, when each will have its own 
system of roots, the shoot making the stem of the vine, 
which can be shortened in at planting to the proper length, 
or this can be done when they are dug. (Fig. 4.) They make 



40 



IRAPP: CULTURE AND 




Fig. 4. 

very good, strong plants. The same, or a similar process may 
also be followed on young growing canes m smiimer (summer 
layering). . These will not make quite as strong plants as 
spring layering, but has the advantage that it can be done 
after the plowing and hoeing in spring has been finished, and 
therefore does not hinder from cultivating both ways, which 
layering in Spring will not permit. For this purpose, strong 
growing young shoots should be left as near the surface of 
the ground as possible, as the layers will not root well when 
they must be bent down, and afterwards raised again, but 
should remain as near the horizontal position as possible. 
They are therefore left to trail along the ground and in the 
middle of June (here in Northern California,) their leader or 
end is pinched off, so that the laterals will grow more vigor- 
ously. They are then laid in shallow trenches, about two 
inches deep, and covered with finely pulverized earth. The 
leaves opposite the laterals on the main shoot may be taken 
off for greater convenience, also to pack the ground more 
closely around the laterals. When the ground is filled up 
around them, they should have a watering, which will assist 
greatly in the forniLition of roots, and the laterals raised as 
much as possible to a horizontal position. For fall, they are 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



41 



divided up, as each lateral will generally make its own system 
of roots, similar as in spring layering. 

Layering to fill vacancies in old vineyards differs in so far, 
as a trench is dug from the parent vine to the vacant place, a 
young cane, grown for that purpose is then pruned long 
enough to reach to the vacant spot, but the trench must be 
dug enough to be below the reach of the plow, say lo inches. 
The cane is then bent down sharply at the mother vine into 
the trench; laid on its bottom, and bent nearly at an angle 
at the vacancy, where one or two buds are left above the 
ground. (Fig. 5.) The trench is then filled up, and as the layer 





Fig. 5. 
draws nourishment from the parent vine, and also forms roots at 
every joint below ground, it makes a very strong grow'th, and 
is able to bear the second season, when it is generally de- 
tached from the mother plant with the pruning shears. 
Every one knows w^ho has ever tried it, that it is almost im- 
possible to fill vacancies wdth young plants, when the vineyard 
has come to bearing size. Then this comes in as the only 



42 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

remedy. It is easily perceived, however, that this is also a 
tax on the mother vine, and allowance must be made for it in 
pruning. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Phylloxera Question. 
That this is a serious one, likely to effect our industry in all 
its branches, will hardly be denied by anyone. If we look at 
the devastated vineyards of Europe, if we consider the ruin it 
has brought to thousands of formerly happy and contented 
homes in France, how its ravages have decimated this leading 
industry, so that now they do not produce wine enough for 
their own consumption, but must buy where they formerly al- 
most supplied the world; how its ravages are already felt in 
Algiers, in Austria and wherever vines are grown, — we will 
hardly question that it is the great disaster threatening every- 
w^here, including this continent. Indeed, we have evidence 
sufficient of its destructiveness in this State, to convince us 
that it is the most formidable enemy of our industry which we 
have to encounter. It is worse than useless to try to ignore 
it, as has been done in- some sections of the State, it will 
make itself seen and felt, and no mechanical or chemical 
means have as yet been found that are of real practical value. 
All the insecticides that have so far been tried, have proved 
too costly and impractical in their application; and we must 
resort at last to the only practical preventative, now recog- 
nized by all nations to be their salvation, viz., "American 
resistant vines." 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 4o 

But while the phylloxera is the greatest enemy to the grape- 
vine, yet its ravages to a certain extent may be a "blessing in 
disguise," especially for us here, where there is already the 
cry of over-production. It may to a certain extent prevent 
this, and has already decreased the production very seriously 
in certain sections of the State. It will naturally destroy a 
large amount of Mission, Malvasia, and others of the old, in- 
different varieties, helping to take their wines out of the mar- 
ket, and making room for a better product from choice vari- 
eties, grafted on the young vines of American stock, and 
make a better reputation and prices for our vines. It may 
kill out the vines on many locations not suited to them, and 
thus improve our coming product indirectly in many ways. 
If we plant American vines on soils really adapted to them, 
we need have no fears of the ultimate result. As the first 
step to successfully fight the enemy is to know where and 
how to find him, I have quoted liberally from the report of 
Prof. F. W. Morse, whose close study of the insect and its 
habits at Berkeley and elsewhere have made him entirely fa- 
miliar with it in California, and as it differs somewhat in its 
habits here from those observed by European authorities, 
they will be of greater value to us than theirs. 

I. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY AND 

HABITS OF THE PHYLLOXERA IN 

CALIFORNIA. 

Made from 1881 to 1886 V)y F. W. Morse, Assistant in the General 
Agricultn ral Laboratory. 

In the following pages I give a summary of the results of 
observations made upon the phylloxera, since its discovery in 
the University vineyard plot in November of 1881. Partial 
reports of the same have already appeared in previous publi- 



44 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

cations of the Agricultural Department, the whole of which, 
with additional observations made since, are here arranged in 
a somewhat modified form. 

The observation was taken up immediately after the discov- 
ery of the insect, the object at first being simply to study the 
more prominent types here, in order to become familiar with 
the prevailing forms generally known to exist in other vine- 
yards; and, also, to note any special habits wherein- they 
might differ from those observed in other countries. No 
special attention was originally intended to be given to the 
prosecution of new investigations tending toward the settle- 
ment of disputed points regarding the biology of the insect. 

No stated time was set apart for this work, which has at 
all times been carried along in conjunction with other Uni- 
versity duties. The available apparatus, too, has not always 
been all that could be desired for obtaining thorough and 
complete results. 

At the outset, only one form of the insect was recognized, 
but as the work advanced, new and unfamiliar forms continu- 
ally appeared, until we have, by a happy coincidence of 
special fitness of vine varieties and surroundings, witnessed 
the production of most of the forms known to foreign inves- 
tigators. 

The importance of such a line of investigation, under such 
circumstances, becomes apparent, when we consider that 
among the various forms which the insect is capable of 
assuming only a part, and these of the forms which are least 
easily spread, have thus far been seen in appreciable numbers 
in California vineyards. A solution of this apparent diver- 
gence from the habits of the insect, as observed elsewhere, 
gives direction to the investigations which have heen car- 
ried on. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 45 

THE UNIVERSITY VINEYARD PLOT. 

The University vineyard plot, in which the field observa- 
tions were made, and the specimens for laboratory work were 
taken, is situated upon the north side of the University 
grounds, and upon the extreme east of that part of the tract 
which was placed under the control of the Agricultural De- 
partment, and set apart for experimental purposes. It has a 
southeast exposure, which renders it somewhat more favora- 
ble than the lower lands to the earlier " putting out" of the 
vine and consequent longer season which is needed in this 
locality. 

The soil is a heavy, refractory clay loam, not easily culti- 
vated except upon the surface, and is underlaid by a stiffer 
clay at a depth of a few inches, followed at a slightly lower 
depth by an intermixture of coarse gravel and rocks, thus 
forming a soil ill adapted to vine growth, and a sub-soil not 
easily penetrated by the roots. The plot, which is from the 
nature of the soil difficult to drain, is relieved of this trouble, 
to a great extent, by the steep inclination and loose-walled 
bank on the lower side. 

The total number of old vines (and some young ones in- 
termixed, which have been grafted on resistant stocks) 
amount to only sixty-eight, including, beside the common 
vinifera varieties, some that in other countries have shown 
special fitness for certain forms of the phylloxera, and which 
are not found among the infected vineyards of our State. 
Some of these are hybrids of stock, elsewhere bearing the gall 
type of insects in abundance. 

Thus we have been specially fortunate in having a collec- 
tion of varieties which, presumably, make it possible to pro- 
duce and study all types that have been observed elsewhere. 

The Winter State of the Insect. — The first important point 
to be considered was to determine the habits and movements 
of the insect at different seasons of the year, and especially to 



46 GRAPE CULTrEE AND 

note their condition during the winter. This was accom- 
plished by repeated examinations during each of the winter 
months of vines most productive of the insect. No obvious 
movement to lower parts of the root-system, such as was pre- 
dicted, was noticeable; but merely a dying out of the differ- 
ent forms upon the older and most decayed parts of the root; 
the healthier fibres and wood always supporting the insect 
most abundantly. Even in mid-winter the wingless root 
form appeared clear to the surface, and even above the ground, 
where tuberous spots afforded them nourishment and protec- 
tion. If the winter proved too severe, portions of the root- 
bark were often found covered with black "lumps" of dead 
phylloxera mingled with small and shriveled brown ones, in 
positions similar to those in which they were found late in 
the fall. 

Field Observations during the Season of i 88 1-2. — 
The observations during the winter of 1 881-2, which was cold 
and was followed by a late spring, revealed the insects numer- 
ously settled upon all parts of the roots, and even in mid-win- 
ter at the surface of the ground on the base of a last year's 
sucker. On December eighth the insect was found in de- 
creasing numbers on the old roots, and confined to groups of 
Ave or six on the healthiest parts of young roots. They were 
mostly of the mother form and only a few larvi^. Later in 
December the preponderance of the mother form was still ap- 
parent, and the general settled conditions of the groups was 
specially noted. 

Frequent examinations during tne months of January, Feb- 
ruary, and March, showed no special change, save a more 
sluggish condition and a darkening of color. • 

It was not until the twenty-eighth of April that signs of re- 
turning life were visible. Scattering eggs, in groups, from 
three to five in number, very transparent and quite large, 
were found surrounding some of the more mature insects 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 47 

which were then becoming yellow but still seem not to have 
moved from their winter positions. No very young larvse 
were to be found, although they were soon after, May first, 
hatched from a bottled specimen taken from the vineyard at 
this time and placed under more favorable conditions, in a 
warm laboratory. A casual examination of specimens put 
aside in an unsealed fruit-jar proved the roots to be literally 
covered with insects, only a few of which were mothers ; the 
remainder consisted of young larvae and eggs. The warm and 
even temperature of the room was undoubtedly the cau^e of 
their earlier activity, and demonstrates the fact that a rela- 
tively high temperature is all that is required for the continu- 
ance of activity during the winter. This presumption is fur- 
ther borne out by their earlier appearance in 1884, when the 
spring was fully six weeks in advance of an average year. In 
the early part of Mar ^h, before the beginning of the budding 
of the vine, specimens could be found which would do credit 
to the insect under the favorable conditions of fall. 

The month of May showed a slow but steady increase of 
the different forms, beginning particularly under the bark of 
older roots, and later increasing most rapidly on fibrous roots 
of the present year's growth. The insects seemed to be of a 
more greenish color than at other times. A marked increase 
in the rapidity of production was noticeable during the last 
days of June; still the spread had not yet become general for 
the season. 

Fi7'st Appearance of the Winged Form. — It was in the fol- 
lowing month (July, 1882) that the first indication of the 
winged form appeared. Insects resembling larvae were found, 
with black antennae and leg?, and upon each side of the back, 
extending along the body, were dark spots, covering the ru- 
dimentary wings which distinguishes this as the wing-pad, or 
"pupa " stage of development. One of these insects wns pre- 
served, and by the twenty-sixth of July had developed into a 



48 GRAPE CFLTrRE AND 

small, live, fertile winged phylloxera, and was transferred to 
a small vial, where she laid a single egg and died. Others of 
these pupDi were found later without much difficulty on simi- 
lar roots ; and others of the winged form have since been 
easily developed. I'heir changes during metamorphosis into 
complete forms were watched with exceeding interest, but 
need not be described here. 

Some of the insects which were most developed, and had 
the wing-pads well formed, were placed upon a glass slide, 
covered with a watch glass, and then properly arranged under 
a microscope. The transformation soon toolc place. A shed- 
ding of the skin precedes the spreading of the wings, 
and is begun by the dark skin separating horizontally over the 
wing-pads, a part shedding toward the abdominal segment, 
and the remainder passing over the head and legs, thereby 
changing these members and the antennae to a much lighter 
color. This operation, in one case, was completed in about 
fifteen minutes. The wings, which appeared to be folded in 
a light colored bunch directly across the back, now part in 
the middle, giving them the appearance of two white or light- 
colored sacks. These gradually expand laterally from the 
base, continually carrying the apparent casings in a bunch at 
the end of the wings until the full length is reached, after 
which the greater part of the spreading is done. The whole 
apparent casings are merely folded wings. 

One hour and fifteen minutes was consumed in passing 
from the beginning of the shedding of the skin to the com- 
plete winged insect, which soon became active and began 
crawling abou^. l^he body of the insect, in the meantime, 
had passed from a light hue to a more intense dark yellow, 
or golden color, while the wings, which before the moulting 
were black, pass to a light or white opaque, then become 
transparent, and, as they spread, become thinner and darker, 
and in the fully developed condition are almost black. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA, 49 

A newly developed winged insect was taken from a moist 
'bottle and placed upon a glass plate, where she soon made 
attempts to fly. Her wet wings were repeatedly brought per- 
pendicularly over her back and rubbed together, apparently 
to free them from moisture, and then she attempted to leap, 
■or fly, often raising, by a peculiar curve, from two to six 
inches high. With the last attempt she flew away. 

Roots Producing the IVmged Form. — ^The vigorous, bushy, 
fibrous growth, or network of root? around the tap-root, evi- 
dently caused by manuring and moisture, seemed best to ful- 
fill the necessary conditions for the development of the winged 
females. It was later shown that these fibrous roots were 
specially productive of this form; in fact, it is very seldom 
that it is found on other roots. 

Conditions of their Development — Invasion of 1884. — -Here 
it may be well to suggest as a possible explanation for the 
greater production of the winged form in France, that the 
more thorough fertilization of the vineyards in that country 
has favored a more general growth of the suiface roots upon 
which the winged form is mainly produced ; also, that the 
Jate spring and summer rains bring about a similar condition 
of growth. The summer rains alone of France, which last 
far into August and September, would be quite sufficient to 
produce surface roots of the kind required to produce winged 
insects in great abundance. It is just previous to this time 
that the winged invasion occurs, when the insect is carried 
in swarms to adjacent vineyards. This is a point which I 
believe has never been suggested, and the truth of which 
seems to be supported by experience in this State, for neither 
of the conditions spoken of is ordinarily realized to any ex- 
tent in California. But the unusual summer rains that oc- 
curred in 1884, and which were followed by such a great 
general development of insect pests in 1885, seemed to im- 
part also to that of the winged phylloxera, a similar impetus ; 



50 GRAPE Cri/rURE AND 

as for the first time since observations were begun, this form 
was during that season found to issue in swarms like those 
observed elsewhere, doubtless greatly increasing its spread. 

We are further justified in supposing that there must be 
some peculiar condition for their development in districts 
where only occasionally evident signs of their workings are 
visible ; and in no case have the winged insects been found 
in such numbers as were developed in 1884. 

At the middle of October, 1882, the insects were still 
numerous, eggs plentiful, and the mothers still laying ; the 
winged form had entirely disappeared. About the middle ot 
November I found only one of the mother-lice fully devel- 
oped ; the remaining insects scattered over the roots were 
young larva:-, healthy and quite active. Some were blackened 
and lifeless, but still retained the larval form. Only one egg 
was found. 

December twentieth none of the mother insects could be 
found ; only larvae, bright but motionless, were present. 

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS IN 1881 82. 

The condition of the insect during different times of the 
year may therefore be summarized as follows ; There is a 
dull, lifeless condition of both larv?e and mother lice during the 
winter, lasting until about the middle of April of a late season, 
when the hibernating mothers begin to lay their eggs. The 
young larvre soon begin hatching out and scatter to all parts of 
the roots. The increase is very slow until the middle of 
June. The winged form begins developing about the first of 
July. Kggs are most numerous about the last of July or first 
part of August. The old mother lice are soon found in 
decreasing numbers, and young larv^ are most abundant. A 
gradual decrease in the number of insects begins about the 
first of October. No eggs, or scarcely any, are to be found 
after this month. Very little action or life is noticeable after 
November. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 51 

Observations in thp: Laboratory, from i 881-1885.— 
For the better verification of the facts observed in the field, 
and especially for the observation of the habits of the insects 
during propagation, a series of laboratory experiments was 
•carried on simultaneously with the field observations. 

Conservatiofi of Root Speciiiie7is. — The first difficulty met 
with was to preserve the root specimen, in such a shape that 
it would not mould, and yet remain sufficiently moist to 
.afford sustenance to the insects. This is best accomplished 
by placing a piece of root containing the required nuniber of 
insects into a wide-mouthed bottle, supplied with a close-fit- 
ting cork. If it becomes necessary to remove the cork very 
often, a few drops of water may be dropped into the bottom 
of the bottle to supply any lost moisture, and then, by 
regulating the temperature, the water can be vaporized and 
condensed so as to reach all parts of the root. Some speci- 
mens were kept in the sunlight, with a good circulation of air 
through the bottle, but the insect did not thrive under this 
treatment. Roots thus treated are more difficult to keep in 
good condition, and the insect becomes more restless. A 
cool dark place seems best fitted for these experiments. 

The leading questions studied were : 

1 . Number of eggs laid by each mother louse. 

2. Rate of laying. 

3. Time required to hatch them into larvae. 

4. Time from the hatching of larvae to the egg-laying age. 

5. Pupa form. 

6. Winged form. 

N limb ei' of Eggs Laid. — Two or three specimens contain- 
ing isolated mothers were placed in bottles and observed 
every few days. The highest number of eggs from any of 
these insects was about seventy-five. Numerous bottled roots 
have specimens of sixty to seventy eggs and larvae together. It 
is not uncommon to see a nest of forty to fifty in a row, upon 



52 GRAPE CULTURE ANT) 

one end of which the young larvae are just hatching out and 
moving away, while at the other end are newly laid eggs and the 
old mother, now reduced to a very small, dark colored ball 
without apparent life or insect shape. This large number 
is not so frequently found in the vineyards. 

The most prolific insects do not seem to produce a gener- 
ation of the numerous egg-laying kind. As soon as the eggs 
are hatched into larvae the latter move away, while those in- 
sects producing eggs that are destined to become laying 
mothers lay but few eggs, which when hatched move less 
rapidly than the other kind, and are often found in groups. 

Rate of Laying and Time of Hatching. — To determine the 
rateof layinsj, properly isolated individuals were watched during^ 
their complete season of laying. The rate was found to be 
very irregular, depending largely upon circumstances. It 
often amounted to five per day, while at other times the in- 
sects ceased laying altogether for several days. A single 
individual laid thirty-five in seven days ; another thirty-four 
in two weeks. At the end of four weeks the whole generation 
had left the spot. The relatively limited supply of sap fur- 
nished by a detached root probably served to restrict the 
number of eggs laid. Still another insect, under less favor- 
able circumstances, surrounded by a meniscus of water, 
which kept her almost submerged, continued laying for a 
much longer time and at a much slower rate. It was found 
that it required about thirteen days to hatch the eggs. 

Duration of Larval Condition. — By deducting the time for 
hatching from the total number of days from the first egg-lay- 
ing to the egg-producing period of the second generation, we 
have the time of the larval condition. This was found to be 
about seventeen days. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 53 

PUPA FORM. 

Much interest attaches to this form, since it is through it 
that we know the conditions which will produce the winged 
form. The later is found with great difficulty upon the vine, 
while the former is readily distinguished among its associates, 
the common root louse or larva, which is first sought after in 
the examination of an infested vineyard. The pupae once 
found, it becomes easy to trace them to the winged form, 
which is usually near by. 

Condi/tons Governing the Production of Pupce. — My first 
observations on the fertile winged form were made on speci- 
mens accidently produced in the laboratory. By tracing back 
to its origin the root upon which these first individuals were 
found, the needful conditions and surroundings could be de- 
termined, and thus the winged form could be sought for 
more intelligently, and found in greater numbers. As before 
noted, the small, soft, fibrous rootlets of the current year's 
growth had .seemed to be most productive of the form from 
which the winged insect is developed. 

Movements and Transforniatiofi of the Pupa Form. — The 
movements of pupa, or wing-pad insect, observed chiefly 
during 1884, were not found to be altogether along the 
smaller roots and thence up the main body to the crown of 
the root, as is usually supposed, but the insects frequently 
left the roots and passed up through the soil, which in no 
place was less than three inches deep. This movement af- 
forded, an excellent opportunity for determining where the 
transformation into the winged form takes place. 

The insect in various stages of development could be 
found in the earth from the surface to the roots, the most in- 
complete forms being found deepest below the surface of the 
ground. Some v/ere found under stones, and in such posi- 
tions as to place it beyond a doubt that they passed through 
the changes underground, and came to the surface in a trans- 



54 grapp: culti'Re and 

formed condition, contrary to the accepted belief of a trans- 
formation at the surface of the ground. 

THE WINGED FORM. 

The kite rains of the summer of 1884, the season in which 
nearly all the field studies of the pupa and winged form were 
made, produced a generous supply of the white, club-shaped 
rootlets, thus enabling us with properly arranged " traps, " 
and bottles buried in the soil, to study the winged ai.d other 
forms. A beaker was also inverted over some of the bared 
roots, and in one or two days an abundant supi)ly of the 
winged form was found flying about, and crawling upon the 
side of the beaker which was most exposed to the light and 
warmth. The young larvas which left the roots for the 
the smooth glass constituted a large proportion of the active 
insects. A bottle which was in a cooler place, showed them 
in far less numbers. 

A steady and rapid production of winged individuals en- 
sued from the beginning of the experiment, August twentieth, 
through September, and a few were developed even later. 
A large number of the confined winged insects soon laid eggs, 
often as many as five for each individual. None of these 
eggs, however, were observed to hatch; hence no sexual in- 
dividuals were produced. 

Migration of W/nged bisects. — In arranging the glass jar 
*' traps" the soil was considerably loosened up, and thus was 
prepared the way for the migration of the winged insects, which 
occurred about the twentieth of August, when they could be 
found in considerable numbers crawling about upon the small 
lumps of earth, preparatory to taking wing. Only one was 
actually seen to fly up to the vine, although others were 
found quietly fixed upon the under side of some of the 
leaves. This passing through the loosened earth, and later 
through the unmolested soil, continued up to the tenth of 



WINE-MA KIN(i IN (lALIFORNlA. 00 

October, when the rains fallen a few days before put an end 
to the development. 

We had thus a continuous movement of this form coming 
to the surface of the ground, not only from the loosened 
earth, but as was seen later, also from the luirder and unmo- 
lested soil. This was kept up until the fibrous roots were 
destitute of pupae, though still badly infested with young 
larvae. 

After the discovery of the winged form in the University 
vineyard, a considerable increase in numbers was noticed else- 
where. Never before had it appeared so plentifully as dur- 
ing the summer of 1884. While the peculiarly favorable 
conditions of root growth found at Berkeley may not obtain 
in all vineyards elsewhere, still equally favorable ones may 
be presented. Yet, the more numerous cases of obvious 
rapid devastation raise a strong presumption in favor of the 
belief of a more widespread increase of this pest since, than 
before 1884. 

Moi'ement of Young Lame tJiroiigh iJie Soil. — A peculiar 
circumstance was noticed on the twenty-sixth of August, 1884, 
in the appearance of a large number of larvae upon the sur- 
face of the ground. They were found as much as two feet 
from the stock, and from three to twelve inches from the 
fine roots, as well as through the soil to the roots. The sig- 
nificance of their appearing in this manner can be appreciated 
when we learn that they crawl upon bits of rubbish, sticks, 
leaves, etc., upon the spot, and even take kindly to growing 
canes placed in their way. 

Just how far they can travel on the surface of the ground 
in this manner we are not able to say, but certainly it in- 
creases the probability of their being transported upon boxes 
and loose packages which are scattered so promiscuously 
about the vineyard at that time of the year. It further shows 
that the insect is not altogether dependent upon interlacing 



56 GRAPE CUI.TLRE AND 

roots beneath the ground for the means of spreading from 
vine to vine. Small lumps of earth below the surface of the 
ground, supplied with the smallest rootlets, were thoroughly 
infested with the insect. Thus it is evident that the rapidity 
of infection, or spreading, will surely be influenced by the 
nature ot the soil, /. e., the greater or less facility with which 
the insect can travel over it, or along the cracks in heavy 
soil. In sandy soils the progress of the larvae is very slow 
and toilsome. 

THE GALL LOUSE. 

Up to August twenty-sixth, 1884, no specimens of the gall 
louse, or leaf inhabiting form of the phylloxera, had been 
identified at the University, or elsewhere in California, so far 
as known. At that time the fresh young leaves near the 
ends of three canes, which stretched from a " Canada " vine 
towards an infested stock, bore a few peculiarly formed galls, 
containing egg-laying mother lice as well as eggs, and numer- 
ous larvre. A few isolated and abandoned ones were also 
found on the old leaves nearer the stock of the vine. This 
arrangement of a few isolated and odd galls nearest the 
stump, and the peculiar fact that all the canes infested are 
suckers coming from near the surface of the ground, suggests 
the probability that the infection comes froni the roots of the 
vine rather than through other means. It is also noticeable 
that one of these canes passes directly up through a portion 
of the foliage, and still does not infect the adjoining canes. 
Why the gall louse should appear just at this timCj when the 
conditions for the rapid production of other forms were fav- 
orable, and not at other times, is a question not easily an- 
swered. We are aware that similar freaks of change have 
occurred in eastern experience in numerous localities, where 
in 1870 the gall louse prevailed largely, the following year it 
had almost entirely disappeared, or in some instances had 
attempted, with more or less success, to locate upon other 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



varieties. The change during that same year even extended 
to France, showing that atmospheric changes could not be 
its sole cause. 

Influeiice of Root Conditions. — It is more probably attrib- 
utable to the influence of the root. During the whole inves- 
tigation there has been noticed a very decided effect upon 
the different forms, caused undoubtedly by the nature of the 
roots upon which the insects are living. In our laboratory 
experiments the larvae are much smaller, more active or rest- 
less, and apparently more numerous than upon roots in their 
normal state; our specimens being, of course, drier, and in a 
poorer condition. The wing-pad insects, in the vineyard, 
are formed only upon the smallest and most tuberous roots, 
and in proportionately decreasing numbers as the roots be- 
come harder, scarcely ever appearing upon those which have 
become tough and woody. 

Identity of the Root and Leaf Louse. — Regarding the above 
anomalous appearance of the gall-louse type, it should be 
noticed that it has come upon a vine which has had no com- 
munication with any outside of those with which it has been 
associated for years, and probably has had no way of becom- 
ing infected with any foreign type. If, as some maintain, 
there be no direct relation between the two types, how is it 
that the vine has borne them for a single year only, and that 
they have not appeared again in 1885? They came at a 
time, too, when we know^ that the temporary change of the 
nature of the root system of the vine, caused by seasonal 
peculiarities, had materially changed the nature of the other 
forms produced upon them. It is said that climatic changes 
influence, to a certain extent, the type which shall predom- 
inate. If it holds in this case, it must be through the stimu- 
lating influence of climate on the peculiar root growth which 
made possible the development of a large number of winged 
insects, which may possibly have been the means through 



58 (iRAPE CULTURE AND 

which the gall-type were developed; all extraordinary growth 
of vine having disappeared before the gall-type had been 
noticed to any extent. It at least seems probable, that the 
root-inhabiting form had changed its habit toward that of the 
gall-louse. 

So soon as this opportunity of studying the relations of the 
two types were presented, an attempt was made to infect a 
clean cane of the " Canada" vine with the root-louse com- 
ing from the "Cornucopia" and appearing upon the surface 
of the ground. 

A cane was bent from the opposite side of the resistant 
vine, and its terminal leaves fastened to an infested spot of 
soil. The leaves and part of the canes were soon covered 
with young larvce, and a few quiet winged insects; the former 
passing freely about upon the leaves but forming no galls, or 
at least only doubtful or abortive attempts. Some of the 
young leaves upon the infested canes were pierced by young 
larvae, which had settled just outside of the fresh galls, and 
had remained until a red dead spot had been formed. 
Others of the larvae were seen crawling about; but they did 
not seem to establish galls. Contrary to the usual habit of 
the gall-louse, they kept mostly upon the under side of the 
leaf. 

In fact, there were very few galls formed except upon the 
smallest leaves. One of these delicate leaves, an inch 
square, bore about thirty galls, a large proportion of which 
contained young larvae, which were easily seen by looking 
through the leaf toward the light. Some galls even contained 
the mother, larvae, and eggs. 

It thus appears that, at least so late in the season, the 
change of habit from root to leaf is not readily made. 

Enemies to the Phvlloxera.— Of the known enemies to 
the phylloxera, only two forms were identified during our ob- 
servations. ThQ phylloxera thrips were seen passing about in 



AVINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 59 

considerable numbers upon the leaves, and some even came 
from the galls, many of which they had cleared of their in- 
habitants. A few specimens of the fyroglyphus, ox phylloxera 
'' mite, appeared among the winged insects that were taken 
I from the "trap;" they were also found upon the roots of 
adjoining vines. It is, therefore, probable that its usual ene- 
j mies have accompanied the phylloxera to California. 

There have been other specimens of the same seen at 
I different places, especially on roots taken for experimental 
i purposes. Some were found on the fourteenth of April, the 
' root specimen having been taken nearly a month before. 

Varieties of Vines Bearing the Several Forms. — In 
speaking of the forms found during the investigations, it 
must not be understood that all of the vines are productive of 
the same forms; nor must it be understood that when we 
speak of the rapid production of any particular form that this 
applies to all the vines infested. We are specially favored in 
this direction by having in our vineyard plot a few vines rep- 
resenting those varieties which are more or less resistant to 
either type of the phylloxera. Only one vine has developed 
the gall type, only one has produced the winged form in 
appreciable numbers, others only when transiently assuming 
the necessary conditions have produced them at all. If a 
slight growth of soft "tuberous" rootlets be formed we max 

DO 

find pupse upon them; but upon the rootlets of the same vine 
having a firmer texture none will be found. Upon the 
"Cornucopia," however, this adaptability of rootlets to the 
production of the winged form extends to roots of a larger 
and firmer growth. The hybrid of the West's St. Peters and 
Clinton has produced all the forms we have thus far observed, 
except the gall type, thereby showing a special fitness for the 
production of the root-inhabiting types. 

Here, too, we should note the peculiarity of these two 
vines, adjoining each other, hybrids of the same original 



60 GRAPE Cl'LTURE AND 

varieties, one producing the gall type and not specially 
adapted to the root type, and the other producing all forms 
of the root type with great ease and during the longest 
period, but in no case bearing galls. Nearly all the observa- 
tions in the past have been taken from this vine. It still 
remains strong and vigorous. 

Danger of Spreading by the Winged Form. — The fact 
that the winged form, so far as it appeared in considerable 
numbers, was limited to a single vine in our vineyard plot, 
necessarily diminishes greatly the probability of its spreading 
to any other vineyard district from this place, and by this 
form. If all the vines were equally productive of the winged 
insect, the probabilities for infection would certainly be 
greatly multiplied; but there. would still be great doubts as to 
whether they would be carried to any great distance and find 
lodgment in a si)ot where the proper conditions for continued 
life obtain. The winged insects have mostly been found 
crawling upon the ground quite near the vine, being thus pro- 
tected by the foliage above them from the winds which might 
otherwise take them up into the air and transport them to 
other districts. A few scattering ones only have been found 
on the foliage, but the thick screen of trees and the ranges of 
high hills in the direction of the regular winds prevailing at 
their time of development, renders any actual danger from 
this source exceedingly remote. 

COMPARISON OF EASTERN AND CALIFORNIA TYPES. 

As a basts for comparison cf the forms which have come 
under our notice with those known to exist elsewhere, I in- 
sert the following tabulated arrangement of the various forms 
which this insect may assume, as presented in a report by 
Professor Riley. It shows at once the complexity of its forms, 
and the diversity of its hab'ti: 

I. — The g ill-inhabiting type, forming galls on the leives, 
and presenting: 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFOKXIA. 61 

a. The ordinary egg with which the gall is crowded. 
d. The ordinary larva. 

c. The swollen, parthenogt.^itic mother, without tubercles. 
II. — -The root-inhabiting type, forming knots on the roots, 

and presenting: 

aa. The ordinary egg, differing in nothing from a, except 
in its slightly larger average size. 

bb. The ordinary larva, also differing in no respect from b. 

d. The parthenogenetic, wingless mother, the analogue of 
c, but covered with tubercles. 

e. The more oval form, destined to become winged. 
/. The pupa, presenting two different appearances. 

g. The winged, parthenogenetic female, also presenting two 
different appearances. 

//. The sexual egg or sac deposited by g, being of two sizes, 
and giving birth to the true males and females. 

/. The male. 

j. The true female. 

k. The solitary impregnated egg deposited by/. 

bbb. The larva hatched from k, which, so far as is known, 
differs not from the ordinary larva, except in its greater pro- 
lificacy. 

/. The hibernating larva, which differs only from <^ in being 
rougher and darker. 

Forms observed in California. — In the course of our work 
we have met all the forms thus far known in the gall-inhabit- 
ing type; in the root-inhabiting type nearly all of the active 
forms represented in the table have been observed. They 
have been developed up to the production of what we have 
called the true sexual individuals, or, as designated in the 
table, the true male and female. The winged females which 
developed upon the roots and were caught in the trap, laid 
the sexual eggs, but none of them produced the individuals 
which would naturally have followed. No reason can be 



02 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

given for the failure, more than the suggestion that the con- 
ditions may not be favorable in a glass vessel for the produc- 
tion of the form whose natural home is upon the leaves or 
stock. There is, also, a possibility that these eggs may not 
hatch even when under favorable conditions in this district; 
for the winged insect has been repeatedly seen upon the stock 
and leaves in a perfectly quiet condition, but no eggs have 
ever been found with them. In fact, no eggs of any kind have 
ever been found upon the upper part of the vine. When the 
insects are confined in a vessel the eggs are soon laid. 

Winter Egg. — The solitary egg, commonly called the win- 
ter egg has also not been found, although it has been the ob- 
ject of diligent search at all times. It is to this form that 
much attention is being directed in European countries, as 
its extinction offers a possible means of checking the ravages 
of this pest. It is also supposed that a close relation exists 
between this egg and the gall-type. If such a relation does 
exist we should have found this form later in the summer up- 
on the vines which bore the gall last year. A careful search 
did not reveal it last winter. 

Probable Underground Development in place of the Winged 
Form. — The larvc'e from the winter egg, of course, we have 
not met as a product from the natural course of development 
through the winged form, but their appearance must have 
escaped our notice through the other parallel line of develop- 
ment which is accomplished entirely underground, and which 
is described as differing only in its possible greater prolificacy 
from the ordinary root louse. 

This line of production may have been that from which 
come the insects noted in a previous report (1882). Their 
peculiar appearance at the time led to doubts as to what stage 
of development they really represented. It was even conjec- 
tured that they were the sexual individuals. 



AVINE-MAXINfi IN CAIJFORNIA. 63 

Professor Riley has omitted to mention in the table this 
supposed underground male and female spoken of by M. Bal- 
biani, which does not pass through the winged state. Accord- 
ing to this belief, a form similar to that produced by the 
winged insects may be developed on the roots and pass along 
the main trunk to the upper part of the vines and deposit eggs 
in positions similar to those selected by the winged form. 
This peculiar phase of development would assist in explaining 
some of the peculiarities regarding the continued prolificacy 
of the species in California when the true male and female 
appear so rarely, if at all. They may mingle with the com- 
mon form which is so often found in considerable numbers 
two or more inches from the ground. 

There is generally a marked distinction between the ap- 
pearance of the young larvae which are to develop either into 
the winged form, or are to become mother insects upon the 
roots. The latter being decidedly dull in habit, and pear- 
shaped, are quite easily distinguishable; the former are. not so 
easily recognized until the wing-pads begin to appear but by 
this time they are already so far developed that they become 
less active, and in bodily form answer more nearly to the de- 
scription of the wingless type. But then there has been no- 
ticed on some of our specimens among these larvce, another 
form, which in activity and outward appearance closely re- 
sembles the undeveloped winged insect. It is of a very bright 
color, apparently smooth, and seems to separate from the re- 
mainder of the generation as soon as it is capable of moving. 
It is in fiict never found in clusters, and mostly upon portions 
of the roots which do not show signs of having been attacked. 
These insects seem to be the explorers for the more sturdy 
productive ones which follow them. Their peculiarities place 
them undoubtedly upon tHe side of the winged form, and as 
there is presumed to exist a similar line of development, save 
the formation of v>-ings, we may justly conjecture that this is 



64 GRAPE rri.TURR AND 

the form corresponding in the biological series to the winged 
form, though never developing wings. 

Hibernating Forms. — The hibernating larva is the final 
form of the year's development, upon which the future multi- 
plication of the insect is dependent. This, and the winter 
eggs, serves to carry the insect through the winter. It seems, 
according to our observations^ that this special precaution is 
not necessary, and is therefore not apparent iw the California 
climate. Our winters are so mild that merely a cessation of 
work is noticeable, and not an extermination of the common 
forms. The young larva of the common egg-laying insect 
acts as hibernants without any apparent special prepara- 
tion, and it seems to brave our winter without any trouble. 
The mother insect can also be found, although with difficulty. 
The larvae themselves, in some cases, seem to have assumed 
some of the qualities of the true hibernants, for they are strong, 
and usually darker in color, often almost black. 

In connection with the habits of the phylloxera during hi- 
bernation, an instructive sample of infested root was preserved 
this year, in an open vessel, filled with moist earth. The roo 
was protected from the earth and i)laced so that it could be 
watched through the sides of the vessel without being disturbed. 
Scarcely any change has been noticed since October fifteenth, 
when the specimen was prepared. Although the conditions 
have been quite similar to that of ordinary vine growth, ex- 
cept somewhat drier, there has Deen no movement to other 
parts of the root corresponding to the supposed movement of 
the phylloxera to lower roots when winter conies on. The in- 
sects have become somewhat darker, well developed young 
larvce, with no appearance of the adult larvae form. Up to 
February, 1886, there has been no appearance of reviving or 
moving about, still the extremities of the insect are extended 
and can be plainly seen as in their natural condition in sum- 
mer. It is to be hoped that interesting facts may be gathered 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 65 

■regarding moulting, and change of form, when they revive 
later in the spring. 

In previous cases, where no soil was used and the tempera- 
ture of the laboratory influenced them, eggs have been pro- 
duced in mid-winter, and production continued until the root 
had decayed. 

The soil of the above sample was moistened in December, 
and a good supply of grass roots and shoots started, but have 
since dried up. 

It has never before been shown that the winter habits in 
California differed in the least from eastern countries. The 
winter of 1884-85 has shown that California climate is spe- 
ially favorable to the life of the phylloxera. A period of 
three months will almost include the total time of inactivity, 
for we find active insects on the last of November, and newly- 
laid eggs on the first of March. 

Moulting of Hibernmits. — It is usually supposed that a 
certain number of moultings is necessary before the hiber- 
nants assume the mother state. This, I think, is only par- 
tially true here, and applies, if at all, to the youngest insects 
which pass as hibernants, and which were not fully developed 
when winter came on. 

Numerous specimens have been carefully watched during 
the proper period, and no movement whatever was noticed 
until the insect began laying eggs. It was further observed 
that the abundance of young larvae found at the close of the 
season in November were in about the same position, and ap- 
parently not changed in the spring when egg-laying began. 

Sterile Winged Form. — The table speaks of two different 
appearances of the pupa and winged form. Undoubtedly 
this means the fertile and sterile kinds; the former alone has 
been produced during our experiments, although it was 
through the latter that the winged form was first found in 
California. These were observed in 1879, by Dr. Hyde of 



GK A PK CULTUR K A ND 



Santa Rosa, and were identified by Professor Hilgard to be 
of the infertile variety. These are the only individuals of the 
sterile variety found thus far, and they came from rather large- 
sized woody roots, such as are usually found near the sur- 
face in ordinary California summers. May we not reasonably 
conjecture that the unusual summer rains of 1884, causing an 
unusual abundance of white surface roots, have also been in- 
strumental in developing exceptionally the normal fertile 
winged form ? 

Mode of attack on Different Vines. — There is one point 
worthy of note as throwing some light upon the resisting power 
of vines; it is the manner of the insects' attack. In the com- 
mon vinifera even, they show preference for i)articular spots 
on the roots, selecting those places where the bark is softest,, 
usually near a crack. From this they extend upward and 
downward along the line where the tissue is continuous from 
that spot; and scarcely ever do we find them working at right 
angles from this line. When the sap begins to ooze out and 
rotting sets in, they precede it closely, always leaving a num- 
ber of insects to continue the destruction until the spot be- 
comes completely rotted and gives out no more sap. Large 
numbers of insects will often be found feeding upon such 
spots, apparently reluctant to leave them as long as any sus- 
tenance can be derived therefrom. So closely is this mode 
of working followed, that on many old Mission vines they 
will be found only on a single spot, while the remainder of the 
root is free from them. A root covered with a fuzzy bark is 
noticeably objectionable to them, a harder one with cracked 
or loosened bark is preferred. 

Upon a thoroughly resistant stock the insects act quite dif- 
ferently. They are usually scattered about, apparently at a 
loss to know just where to begin operations. Their first 
piercings are made, and instead of a deep rotting which com- 
pletely kills the bark to the woody tissue, a slight, thin black- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 67 

€ning of the bark takes place, which does not extend further, 

and, if made on the finer rootlets, will often peel off, leaving 

the root perfectly smooth. 

I I abstain purposely from description of any chemical reme- 
! dies, because I believe them too costly, and at the same time 
j not effectual enough. They give us no guarantee, even if 
! they could be so thoroughly applied as to exterminate all 
j the insects, of permanent security; as they may at any time 
I be again transmitted to the same vineyard, making continued 
I applications necessary, generally with great danger to the 
]! vines. Only in cases when it is desirable to preserve a valu- 
]j able piece of vineyard of a choice variety, it may be advisable 
\ to use Dr. Bauer's Mercurial remedy, which so far is the most 

promising, least dangerous, and cheapest of all that have been 
; tried. Those who wish to try this, can find it fully described 
ij in Bulletins i8 and 48, which can be had from the State Uni- 
'' versity on application. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RESISTANT VINES. 

I have always been fully convinced, since I first studied 
the habits of the insect that in these we possess the only 
feasible and practical means of preventing and counteracting 
the ravages of the phylloxera. Insecticides, of whatever kind 
and description, are too costly in their application, and have 
to be renewed too often, to ever become practically applica- 
ble here or even in Europe. The lowest cost of their appli- 
cation of which I have seen an estimate, is about $30 per 



68 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

acre, more than the general annual cost of cultivation, and 
this is only a temporary remedy, which must be renewed 
every few years, to be of use at all. Besides, great care must 
be exercised in their application, for an over-dose will kill or 
fatally injure the vines. The pest is liable to reappear at any 
time, and thus it needs constant doctoring with costly reme- 
dies, to keep the patient even in a state between life and 
death. But when a vineyard is once established on Ameri- 
can roots, of a variety suited to its locality, I believe it to be- 
fully efficacious, and European experience, as well as our 
own he7'e proves it to be so. Any one who has seen the mag- 
nificent and flourishing vineyard of Messrs. Dresel and Gund- 
lach, in Sonoma County, re-established on American roots^ 
when the vinifera had been totally destroyed on the same soil,, 
and the ground was full of the insect, cannot help to believe 
them entirely and fully resistant. During the five years that 
I had charge of the Talcoa vineyards, near Napa, where the 
insect is gradually destroying the old vineyard of 70 acres, 
where I planted over 300 acres with American vines of differ- 
ent species, and replanted fifteen acres with American vines, 
which had been destroyed by the phylloxera; I could fully 
convince myself. These vines, mostly wild Riparia, and Riparia 
varieties, are now in their third summer, and although planted 
on infested soil, and ground naturally not very rich, that had 
been impoverished by over 20 years of constant bearing of 
the vinifera, which occupied the ground before, but suc- 
cumbed to the insect. The most striking illustration of the par- 
tial resistance of all American vines, was presented by some 
old vines of Catawba, Isabella and Clinton, which had been 
mixed in among the Mission vines and scattered among 
them, about 50 in all, over perhaps two acres. These re- 
mained fresh and vigorous, producing fair crops and good 
growth every year, where Mission and other varieties were 
utterly destroyed. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 69 

I do not wish to be understood, however, that certain 
species of American vines should succeed everywhere and in 
all soils. This would not be natural, and can hardly be ex- 
})ected. We have instances on record now, with even our 
short experience, which serve to show that we must again 
study the species adapted to our particular soil and locality. 
The Taylor and Elvira, two Riparia varities, succeed well at 
Dresels and Gundlach, below Sonoma, while at Kohler's 
Vineyard at Glen Ellen they do not succeed, while the 
Lenoir grows finely, and produces well; and the Herbemont 
again one of the most flourishing and vigorous at Gundlachs 
and Talcoa, does not succeed at Kohler's, only ten miles 
from there. So far, the wild Riparia, the Lenoir and Her- 
bemont have given the most general satisfaction, while the 
Californica seems also to succeed well in all deep, rich 
soils, especially in adobe, and does not seem to flourish in 
dry soil or hard-pan. The same may be said in France and 
Europe, hence the conflicting reports from there about the 
results obtained with American vines. The question there is 
now, not so much their resistance, of which nearly all seem 
to be convinced, but the applicability and adaptability of 
certain varieties to certain soils and locations. The follow- 
ing, taken from the wine and spirit news, and published sev- 
eral years ago, may serve as an illustration of the estimation 
in which they are held there, and the extent to which they 
have been adopted to reinstate their failing vineyards. I 
have the pleasure to be one of the correspondents of Mdme 
la Duchess de Fitz James and gladly add my testimony to 
that of the gentleman referred to, as to her enthusiasm and 
zeal, and the incalculable benefits which her able writings 
and splendid example have conferred upon our beloved in- 
dustry. 

Under the heading "Measures for Combatting the Phyl- 
loxera," a pamphlet has recently been published at Bordeaux, 



70 GRAPE CULTURE AND • 

giving an account of a visit paid by M. A. I.alande, the 
deputy for the Gironde, in comi)any with M. M. Ed. Law- 
ton and T. and P. Skawinski, to the districts of the Herault 
and the Gard, for the purpose of studying the means em- 
ployed in those departments with a view to the destruction of 
the phylloxera, or where necessary reconstituting the vineyards 
already destroyed. This journey, which extended over six 
days, was undertaken more especially in the interests of the 
vine-growers of the great and important district of the Medoc, 
the centre of the richest vine districts of France. 

Up to the present time the ravages of the phylloxera, al- 
though considerable, have not by any means been so serious 
in the Medoc as in some of the other wine-producing districts 
of France. In the department of the Gard, for instance, it 
is stated that out of 255,000 acres of vines, 250,000 have 
been destroyed ; while in the Herault, which produced at 
one time 330,000,000 gallons of wine, and the average an- 
nual production of which was 220,000,000 gallons, the quan- 
tity for 1881 fell to 77,000,000 gallons only. Frem these 
figures it will be readily seen that the field for inquiry offered 
by these two departments was an extensive one, and the in- 
formation to be obtained should be of extreme value as a 
guide to other districts, and all the more so, as energetic 
measures have been already adopted by the vine-growers of 
the south, with a view, if not to save, at least to renew the 
vines which constitute for them the chief wealth of their 
districts. 

Before proceeding further, we may say that the informa- 
tion and evidence obtained by M. Lalande and his fellow- 
travellers throws a somewhat new light upon the question of 
the phylloxera, and seems to show that, serious as the damage 
caused by this insect has been, and still continues to be, the 
case is not altogether a hopeless one. Of various remedies, 
some thousands in number, suggested for combatting thei 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 71 

phylloxera, three only at the present time hold an important 
position. The credit of having suggested one of these, that 
of replanting by the American vines, is assigned to M. Laliman, 
and that gentleman shares with Baron Thenard, M. Dumas, 
and M. Fancon, the honor of having indicated to the French 
vine-growers the three means capable, according to situation 
and other circumstances, of resisting the terrible plague 
which at one time threatened to annihilate the vineyards of 
France — that is to say, the em[)loyment of insecticides, sub- 
mersion, and American vines. 

Of the first remedy we hear but few particulars during the 
journey undertaken by M. Lalande ; of the second no notice 
is taken at all ; while, on the other hand, of the results ob- 
tained by means of the third, most striking evidence is given, 
and, indeed, it is apparent that it is to the last remedy — 
that of replanting with American vines — that M. Lalande 
and his fellow-travellers attach the greatest importance. 

On the first day of their excursion the chief interest seems 
to have been attracted to some vineyards in the neighbor- 
hood of Beziers, where an extent of more than 5000 acres of 
vines had been preserved for some years past by means of 
sulphate of carbon, accompanied each year by manuring over 
about a third of the extent of the lands in question. As a 
result of this treatment, it is stated that the vegetation was 
good and normal, idthough there were some points where 
the sulphate of carbon appeared not to have acted with the 
same efficiency and success as elsewhere. The failure in 
these cases, however, was attributed to the extreme hu- 
midity, which had paralyzed the action of the sulphate, a 
failure which, it is hoped, may be remedied in future by 
means of drainage. 

Proceeding on the second day to the neighborhood of 
Montpelier, a visit was there paid to an estate on which all 
the French vines had been destroyed some time previously, 



72 (iRAPE CUJ.TUKK AND 

and which now presented the interesting ai)pearance of an 
entire reconstitution of the vineyard on a grand scale, by 
means of American vines planted ten years previously, and 
subsequently grafted with the French vines, which latter have 
since offered a i)erfect resistance to the attacks of the 
phylloxera. 

In the ssme district another property was found where the 
vines, which were of a French species, had been grafted 
either on the Lenoir, Clinton, Taylor, or Riparia, and were 
in a splendid state of vegetation, with an abundant appear- 
ance of fruit. 

Similar accounts are given as to a number of other proper- 
ties visited on this and the succeeding days, as to which M. 
Lalande remarks : " It does not appear necessary to give a 
detailed account of all we have been able to observe. We 
limit ourselves, therefore, to remarking that, after having 
seen numerous specimens of all varieties of American vines 
introduced into France, we have especially noticed some 
Lenoir and Herbemont vines as presenting a magnificent 
appearance, with a fair (juantity of fruit, although, it should 
be stated, much less so than was to l^e found where French 
vines had been grafted on American stocks." As a proof of- 
this fact, some particulars are given of a property in the 
neighborhood of Montpelier where all the French vines had 
been destroyed by the {phylloxera. Here some 200 acres 
had been replanted a few years previously with the American 
vines called Riparia, and these had been subsequently 
grafted with French vines. The results in this case were 
splendid, the vegetation being very fine, and the quantity of 
fruit enormous, in fact, all the vines were loaded with mag- 
nificent grapes, and these extremely well formed, so much so 
that the production had increased by half as much again per 
acre on the original yield. 

Very much the same results were observed on the last day 



WINE-MAKlXfi IN CALIFORNIA. 7o 

of the journey, when visiting the extensive vineyards of the 
Duchess Fitzjames. This lady has given much attention to 
the question of the advantages to be derived from replanting 
with American vines, and an article contributed by her some 
twelve months to the Reveii des deux Mondes on the subject 
of American vines may be said to have contained, at that 
time, all the information to be obtained in regard to the 
same. Speaking of this property M. Lalande says: "We 
have much admired here the American vines — principally 
the Lenoir — cultivated with' a view to direct production, as 
also the American vines grafted with French varieties. We 
have, however, still more admired, if this was possible, the 
energy and intelligence displayed by the Duchess Fitzjames 
in the reconstitution of her vineyards. Some idea may be 
formed of this when we state that she has already success- 
fully replanted 1,275 acres of vines, and is making arrange- 
ments for increasing this replanting to the extent of nearly 
2,000 acres, thereby inspiring the conviction that the mag- 
nificent vineyards of this district — now^ almost entirely 
destroyed — -Avill be able gradually to be reconstituted by 
means of American vines. 

One other curious piece of information resulted from this 
visit. It appears that, it having been found that vines 
planted in sandy soils resisted better the attacks of phyl- 
loxera, these lands which formerly had been neglected, and 
were worth scarcely thirty-two shillings per acre, have now% 
after having been planted with vines, increased in value to 
nearly one hundred times that amount. Thus in the sandy 
soil of Aigues-Mortes the American vines which have been 
there planted presented a magnificent appearance with an 
abundant show of fruit. 

From all the information obtained during their visit, M. 
Lalande and his fellow-travellers state, as the result of their 
experience, that they had found in the departments of the 



74 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Herault and the Gard the preference was given by the vine 
growers ahiiost exclusively to two kinds of American vines — 
the Lenoir and the Riparia, although some other varieties, 
such as the Clinton, the Solonis, the York-Madeira and the 
Rupestris are considered excellent importations for grafting 
with French vines. 

Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon M. Lalande 
and those associated with him in this journey, undertaken as 
it was entirely in the interests of the French vine growers; 
and if, as appears more than likely, as the result of their 
visit, the practice should become general throughout France 
of replanting with American vines as a means of resisting the 
phylloxera, the destruction of the French vineyards, which 
at one time appeared more than possible, may, it now seems 
more than probable, be averted. — IlY/ie and Spirit N'ews. 

This would seem to be conclusive testimony enough to 
convince even the most skeptical, that vineyards can be rein- 
stated with American vines. 

I will now make a comparison of the different classes and 
species, with their comparative value and applicability here, 
as it appears to me after six years of close study and observa- 
tion in this State. I shall take them in the order as they 
seem to me the most valuable. 

Vitis ^^stivalis — Summer Grape. I take this first, because 
I consider it perhaps, the most important, at least some of 
its varieties; and shall speak mainly of those which I think 
most valuable, and which have already gained somewhat of a 
reputation as direct producers, while they also make excel- 
lent stocks for grafting. I have already spoken of their lead- 
ing characteristics in classification of grapes. They make very 
strong roots, always at the lower joint, and are therefore emi- 
nently adapted to dry, and even stony hillsides, although they 
also flourish in rich, deep land, but are averse to cold, wet, 
hard-pan soil, as they do not like wet feet. But such soil is not 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIVORNIA. 7o 

fit for grapes any way, and will never make first-class wine, 
therefore should be avoided. They will stand the severest 
droughts and always look fresh and green. Their thick and 
persistent foliage affords excellent protection to the fruit, and 
withstands, better than all others, the attacks of the white 
thrip and other insects. They do not sunscald, and seldom 
are attacked by mildew. 

The Herbeinojit is perhaps the most valuable; a strong 
grower, very productive and healthy. Synonyms, Herbemonts 
Madeira, Warren, Warrenton. It was first cultivated by Mr. 
Neal, a farmer in Warren Co., Georgia, who found the vine 
in the woods, near his residence, as early as the year 1800. 
It was afterwards cultivated by Mr. Nicholas Herbemont, a 
Frenchman, at Columbia, and distributed under its present 
name. He made wine of it for many years, which was 
justly admired. Mr. Longworth introduced it at Cincinnati, 
Ohio, and Mr. Charles G. Teubner at Hermann, Mo., 1847, 
where I became familiar with it in 1852, and have cultivated 
it in Missouri for twenty-five years. With winter protection 
it seldom failed to produce a fine crop there, and I have seen it 
produce 35 lbs. to the vine, or 2000 gallons to the acre. This 
was with long pruning on trellis, and the crop was sold to the 
wine makers at 7 cents per pound. It makes a very sprightly 
white wine, if pressed lightly, immediately after being 
crushed; and the remainder, if thrown into the fermenting 
vat, and fermented froni four to six days, will make a good 
claret. The Herbemont has not been tried so extensively in 
this State, on account of the prevailing rage for red wine, as 
it lacks in color, but all the samples made from it have elicited 
high praise for their sprightliness, easy and rapid clarification, 
and their delicate flavor. The vine is a very strong, short- 
jointed growler; wood gray, leaves deeply lobed, large and 
thick, light green above, grayish below, which remain on the 
vines, fresh and green, until December. Bunch compact. 



76 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

shouldered, larger and heavier than any of its class; berry 
small, round, black with blue bloom, very juicy and sprightly, 
without pulp, well called by Downing, "bags of Wine," skin 
thin. A very early and heavy bearer, has with long pruning 
produced 50 1T)S. to the vine when four years old. An ex- 
cellent stock for grafting, as it is an immense grower, and all the 
grafts of Vinifera varieties take well on it, but almost too good 
of itself to graft. Who ever plants it has the choice of keep- 
ing it for its own fruit, or gnifting it. I should prefer the 
first. It propagates much more readily from cuttings grown 
in this State than in Missouri, and I have had from 50 to 75 
per cent, to grow in nursery. The finest piece of Vinifera 
grafts Mr. Gundlach has are on Herbemont roots. 

Perhaps the most valuable for direct production of the 
.-^^^stivalis class is the RuhDide)- or St. Genevieve. This is not 
the German grape of that name, but a true .T^stivalis, first 
extensively cultivated by Dr. Koch, of Golconda, 111., who 
obtained it from St. Genevieve, Mo.; vine a short jointed, 
stocky grower, wood short jointed, blueish brown; leaf heart 
shaped, not lobed; bunch small, shouldered, compact; berry 
small, round, brownish black, covered with blue bloom, juicy, 
sweet and spicy. Makes a very fine dark red wine here, resem- 
bling the finest Burgundy types, and is very productive. It is 
well adapted to spur pruning, on account of its short, stocky 
growth, and as it is easy of propagation, will be valuable for 
its own product, as well as a grafting stock. The must is 
very sweet and spicy, coming up to 28 to .30^ Balling. Pro- 
pagates easily from cuttings. 

The Louisiana is very similar to the above, in growth of 
vine, leaf and fruit, but differs in making a lighter colored 
wine, resembling the delicite, high flavored and heavy hocks. 
It is as yet but little tried in this State, and only in my hands, 
I shall report fully on it in dua time. So far, it is very 
promising. 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALTFORXIA. 77 

Perhaps the best known of this class is the Lenoir. Syno- 
nyms, Black Spanish, Jack Grape, Jaquez, Devereaux. I 
sent it to this State, to Mr. H. W. Crable, of Oakville, Napa 
Co., in 1876, as he was desirous of obtaining a grape of very 
deep color, and abundance of tannin; and as I had tried it on 
a small scale in Missouri, I thought it would meet this want. 
It originated in South Carolina or Mississippi, and was first 
disseminated by a gentleman named I.enoir, hence the name, 
who grows it somewhat extensively in South Carolina, and 
made wine from it forty years ago, which was much admired. 
It is cultivated extensively in Texas, under the name of Black 
Spanish. It was introduced into France as early as 1864, 
where it is now perhaps more cultivated and its wine has a 
higher commercial value than that of any other American 
grape, on account of its intense color, and as its resistance to 
phylloxera has been fully demonstrated. It is a beautiful 
grower, with large, dark green, deeply lobed leaves; points of 
the young shoots reddish, wood brown, long jointed for its 
class. Bunch long, shouldered, loose; berry small, black, 
with blue bloom, juicy, no pulp, juice deep violet red. It has 
such a superabundance of color that one fifth of it will give 
the desired color to any light colored Zinfandel, and as it also 
has an abundance of tannin, it is likely to be a very valuable 
wine for blending, though I must say I do not admire it by 
itself as much here as I did in Missouri. It seems to me to 
be coarse and harsh. It is a very strong grower, and needs 
a six foot stake with abundance of si)urs, to make it produce 
full crops, Specific gravity of must 28° Balling. 

Ciinni7igham. Synonyms, Long. This is perhaps the most 
valuable of the whole class as a stock f 07- graftitig, as it is an 
immense grower, takes the graft well, and propogates readily 
from cuttings. Though it bears very abundantly, the berries 
are small and dry, with a superabundance of acid, though also 
rich in sacharine. It originated with Mr. Jacob Cunningham, 



/8 grapp: culture and 

Prince Edward Co., Va., about the year 1812. I received 
it from Virginia at Hermann, Mo., as early as 1852, and 
made some very fine wine of it in good seasons, though it sel- 
dom ripened its wood well, and proved too tender for that 
severe climate. Here it seems in its proper latitude, as it al- 
ways ripens its wood. Vine, the strongest grower I know ; 
wood, short jointed, blueish-red; bunch small, compact, 
shouldered; berry small, purplish-lilac, not very juicy, but 
high flavored and spicy. Leaf, heart shaped, not lobed, light 
green above, greenish white below, young shoots downy. I 
am inclined to believe it the most valuable stock we have for 
grafting, though not willing to recommend it as a direct pro- 
ducer. 

These varieties all belong to the so called Southern divis- 
ion of the .Estivalis class. The Northern division, to which 
the Norton s Virginia and Cynthiana belong, have not, so far^ 
proved a success here, though producing fine red wines in 
Missouri and Virginia. The climate seems to be too dry for 
them, the berries and bunches are very small and dry, and 
the leaves do not seem to be so healthy. I hardly think they 
will be worthy of cultivation here, especially as the wine they 
produce is not near so good as in Missouri and Virginia. 

Perhaps the easiest and cheapest plan to grow the /Kstivalis 
for stocks would be to sow their seeds. In connection with 
this I will say that the experiments I have made show a de- 
cided tendency in the case of the Lenoir to go back to the 
original type, the plants not showing as much vigor as could 
be expected from the parent stock. Iw the Herbemont seed- 
lings, however, there seems to be a great tendency to sport, 
/. e. produce manifold varieties, but most of them showing 
great vigor and fine growth, while their root system was per- 
fect; a large tap root, going straight down, with but few di- 
verging roots, and these with the same downward tendency. 



AVINK-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 79 

The seedlings made a very large growth the first season, and 
gave promise of being very fine grafting stock. 

Vitis Riparia. Sand or River grape. Next to .4^>stivalis 
in importance as a grafting stock, I would place this, 
especially the wild Riparia, as it seems to succeed on 
a diversity of soils, propagates readily and easily, and 
takes the graft readily. Of the cultivated varieties there is 
but one, the Elvira, which is equal, if not superior, to the 
wild Riparia in this respect. The Taylor does not seem to 
take the graft well, nor is it as entirely resistant as the wild 
stock, as the wounds made by the insect on its roots, do not 
seem to heal over as rapidly as could be wished. The wild 
Riparia has the advantages of easy propagation, adaptability 
to location and soil, and uniting well with the graft. There 
is a difference, however, in the varieties; as the Green Hun- 
garian, Marsanne, Franken Riesling, Clairette Blanche, 
Muscadelle de Bordelais, Pedra Ximenes and several others, 
take on it readily, while the Sultana, Crabbs Burgundy, 
Gamay, and Chanche Gris, do not unite so readily and sure- 
ly. I have found very little difference in cuttings or seed- 
lings, one year old seedlings will make about as strong a 
growth, if transplanted to the vineyard, as one year old vines 
from cuttings. If the latter are chosen, I would advise, how- 
ever, before planting to cut out all the lower buds on the 
plant with a sharp knife, leaving only only those around the 
crown of the vine, or perhaps one below it. This will pre- 
vent suckering from below, will save much labor and distur- 
bance of the graft, and one man can do the jDruning of the 
vTnes for a set of four planters, 

Vttis Californica. Our native w ild species has been used to 
a greater extent as a grafting stock, perhaps, than any other, and 
it is certainly a very vigorous, strong grower, with a root system 
which seems to go down into the soil naturally. It has a 
very soft, fleshy root, however; fully as soft as the Vinifera, 



80 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

and one which the insect, therefore, attacks readily. The 
wounds seem to heal up, however, and the strong and vigor- 
ous habit of the vine may overcome its attacks. But it is 
useless to attempt growing the Californica on very dry, stony 
soils. The vine evidently does not feel at home there, nor on 
hard pan alkaline soils; and as it makes but a very feeble growth 
there, would readily succumb to the attacks of the insect. 
Deep alluvial soils, and rich adobe lands seem to be suited 
best to its wants. The wisest plan would be to choose the 
^stivalis for the former the hard pan alkaline soils, are 
really not fit for any vine, and had better be left severely 
alone for vineyard planting. As the subject is an all impor- 
tant one, I shall take the liberty of quoting largely, at the 
close of this chapter, from the publications of Prof. E. W. 
Hilgard, of the State University, who is one of the strongest 
advocates of the Californica. As the vine does not propagate 
as readily from cuttings as Riparia, the easiest and cheapest 
way will be to raise seedlings, which make good plants for the 
vineyard the same season. 

Viiis Riipestris — Rock or sweet grajjc. As this is at home 
on the most barren and rocky hillsides in Missouri, Arkansas, 
and Texas ; it would seem natural to suppose that it was best 
adapted to withstand our dry summers, and to succeed on the 
driest soils. This seems not the case, however ; and its 
growth, in such locations has not been superior if equal to 
that of .^-^stivalis or Riparia, while in moist rather springy 
soil, it makes a very heavy growth. It does not, however 
take the graft as readily as these, suckers yet more, and I can 
see no reason to recommend it when these can be had. If 
planted it will be very important to cut out the lower buds 
on the cutting or plants, as mentioned before for the Riparia. 

Vitis Arizonica. — -The wild vine of Arizona is closely re- 
lated to this, and as I can see nothing in it to recommend, in 



AA'INE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 81 

preference to the foregoing, and it does not seem to graft 
readily, we will pass it by. 

Vitis Labriisca — Northern Fox Grape. This propagates 
readily from cuttings; but as it roots near the surface, and is 
not entirely resistant, although [)artially so, I cannot recom- 
mend it, except perhaps, a few of its varieties for immediate 
bearing- and market grapes. For that purpose some of the 
earnest varieties may be valuable, such as Delaware, Early 
Victor, Wilder and Agawam. These could be grown on 
their roots, without grafting. 

It can hardly be of practical value to enumerate the other 
classes, and I will only say in conclusion, that I can see no 
reason, with the phylloxera already in our midst, which would 
induce me to plant vinifera, when I can have resistant vines 
as cheap, as easy, and run no risk with them. If a years 
time is lost by grafting, the grafts grow so much more vigor^ 
ously and produce so much more heavily than on their own 
roots, that the loss of time and expense in grafting will be 
more than made up in a few years. 

The following extracts from the University report by Prof. 
Hilgard and others, will throw additional light upon this im- 
portant topic. I only wish to add in the way of comment, 
that it did not take more than two seasons after planting the 
Riparia, either one year old plants from cuttings, or one year 
old seedlings, even in the unfavorable soil of Talcoa, to make 
them strong enough for grafting. Also that the early starting 
of the stock, referred to in the notes, did not seem to have 
any influence (3\\ the grafts, which did not start earlier thari 
the same varieties on their own roots. But grafting seems to 
have a decided influence on coulure, as the grafts set and per- 
fected their fruit much better than the same varieties on their 
own roots. Perhaps the partial obstruction to the flow of sap 
at the junction may account for this, as grafted trees generally 
bear earlier and more abundantly than seedlings. 



82 GRAPE CUI/rURK AND 

Phyt.loxera — Resistant Vines. 

The subject of vine stocks that will resist the attacks of the 
phylloxera, and can be safely used for the establishment of 
vineyards in infested districts by grafting, is one of growing 
importance to California, since upon these vines rest, at this 
time, the only hope of permanently maintaining vine culture 
in the most noted viticultural regions of the State. Although, 
the progress of the pest is materially slower in California than 
in Europe, from causes adverted to in the last annual report, 
yet it is none the less certain. To ignore this fact is to imi- 
tate the fabled ostrich, hiding its head in the sand to escape 
its pursuers; and yet the indisposition to face the facts and 
prepare to meet the inevitable in the best possible state of de- 
fense is still so common, that the subject of the phylloxera is 
^' taboo "in many places where he that runs may read the 
signs by the wayside, in the dying or fading vines that spot 
the. vineyards; and he that calls attention to it is denounced 
as one who would "spoil the sale of the land." It is high 
time that this false and pernicious reticence and hiding-aw^ay 
should cease, and with it the useless expenditure annually in- 
curred in the replanting of infested ground with non-resistant 
vines, or without any of the other precautions or preventive 
measures that would make such expenditure a reasonable busi- 
ness venture. 

Since of late much has been said about resistant vines 
being after all non-resistants, upon the ground that in some 
cases they have succumbed, it is proper that the causes of 
of such occurrences should be placed in their true light, so 
far as the facts reported will justify conclusions. It is a mat- 
ter of regret that it has not been feasible to undertake an ex- 
haustive personal examination of such cases; but what is cer- 
tainly known is sufficient to account for most of the well au- 
thenticated instances of failure. 



AVINK-MAKING IN (CALIFORNIA. 83 

^The Meaning of " Resistant " — First of all it is necessary 
to dispel the illusion entertained by some, that resistant vines 
are such as are not attacked by the phylloxera. vSo far as our 
knowledge extends at this time, the insect will feed on any 
and all of the members of the true vine tribe [vitis proper) 
when occasion offers; but it is evident that some are better 
adapted to the taste or nature of the phylloxera than others, 
and are, therefore, more numerously infested when planted in 
the same ground with others; just as cattle will pasture on 
the sweet grasses in preference to the sour ones. The Euro- 
pean vine (vinifei'a) appears, on the whole, to be the one 
most uniformly adapted to the insects' taste in all its varieties, 
and is always attacked in preference. It evidently offers the 
best conditions for the life and multiplication of the pest 

It is not, then, a proof of non-resistance when a vine is 
found to be more or less infested; for, so far as we know, 
there are no true vines of which the phylloxera will not at- 
tack the roots when presented to them. 

The true criterion is that the resistant vine and its roots will 
not only outlive the attacks, but flourish and bear remunera- 
tivecrops under the same conditions under which the more 
sensitive European vines will succumb. 

But every vine, like every other plant, is subject to certain 
conditions of soil, climate, and atmosphere for its welfare. 
Any vine, or any other plant, may be planted where from un- 
favorable conditions it will not flourish, and where a slight 
addition to the adverse influences may cause it to either die 
or maintain only a feeble existence, useless to the cultivator 
for profit. The resistant vines are x\o exception to this gen- 
eral rule, 

They have been planted, and expected to yield satisfactory 
results, where vines have been fruited for twenty or thirty 
years without the use of a particle of manure, and where, as a 



S*4 (iRAPE CUI/rURE AND 

result, the old vines, as well as the new " resistant " ones^ 
have died from sheer inanition. 

They have been planted where no vine ever should be, if it 
is to yield decent returns — in soils underlaid at a few feet by 
impervious hardpan, and where the roots would remain- 
drenched in cold water until late in spring. They have not 
resisted, as it was best they should not. 

Cuttings, or rooted vines, have been planted in holes from 
which dying phylloxerated vines had just been extracted. 
They have found the cumulative pressure of having to take 
root in fresh ground, and at the same time to feed a swarm 
of half-starved ph-ylloxera coming from the outlying roots of 
the old vine, too much for them. They have failed to resist 
what no young plant could be expected to survive under any 
circumstances. Some have survived to the second, and even 
third year, struggling against these adverse conditions, but have 
finally succumbed, as they might have been expected to dO' 
before. And again we hear of a damning example of the 
failure of the resistant vines. 

Adaptations of Vines to Soils. — -But beyond such cases as- 
these, which are intelligible and avoidable under the guidance 
of common sense alone, there is another class of reported 
failures which is clearly referable to the want of special adap- 
tation of the vine chosen as a resistant, to the particular soils, 
or location in which they were planted. 

It is not reasonable to suppose that a vine which is naturally 
at home in rich, heavy lowland soils, should not only flourish- 
but supply extra strength against attack from without, in thin, 
meager uplands, or on land, exhausted by long cultivation;, 
nor that a vine whose hardy roots resist the phylloxera when 
growing in its natural location on dry, rocky uplands, will 
necessarily retain this character when grown in rich, moist 
lowland. To a certain extent, cultivation does modify and 
e(]ualize the natural soil-conditions, especially when it is thor- 



WIXE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 85 

ough and is faithfully kept up. But there always remains a 
certain margin of natural adaptation which must be respected 
even in the cultivated plant, and the more because climatic 
and seasonal conditions may render a strict fulfillment of the 
best culture impracticable or unavailing for the time being. 
Those cultivating adobe soils will appreciate the importance 
which this consideration may acquire, not only for one, but 
for several consecutive seasons. 

Species and Varieties of Rcsistants. — Of the American spe- 
cies and varieties that, for practical purposes, may be consid- 
ered as resistant under proper conditions of soil and moisture^ 
the following are the most prominent: 

I. The Vitis Riparia, or northern riverside grape and its 
cultivated varieties, of which the Taylor and the Clinton are 
the chief. The resistant power of the latter is now, however, 
pretty generally admitted to be inferior to that of their wild 
prototype, although they are better adapted to a great variety 
of soils. The Riparia is in its wild state emphatically a "river- 
side " grape, which in its natural condition ascends into the 
uplands only exceptionally, when these are unusually moist 
and fertile. Under cultivation, nevertheless, it does well on 
good upland, but is of slower growth than in its natural 
habitat. It does not frequent the heavier soils as much as the 
alluvial loams, of the upper Mississippi Valley. It is of very 
long-jointed, slender growth, so that its canes, while of great 
length and bearing abundance of foliage, are often borne by a 
surprisingly thin trunk, which is not as easy to graft as most 
other varieties. The cuttings root with great ease, but gen- 
erally only a portion, varying according to the soil and sea- 
sons from one half to three fourths, are large enough to be 
successfully grafted the third year; seedlings arrive at about 
the same condition the fourth year from the seed. To offset 
these disadvantages the Riparia is now usually considered the 



;8() GRAPE CULTUHK AKO 

most generally and tenaciously resistant toward the attacks of 
the phylloxera. It is very little liable to mildew. 

2. Vitis CffrdifoUa, the southern riverside grape, so greatly 
resembles the Riparia that for some time it was not distin- 
guished as a separate species. While it is undoubtedly a very 
resistant stock, the fact that it is at home in a region noted 
for its perpetually moist atmosphere, seems to render it less 
promising for general success in California than the Riparia, 
over which, so far as known, it possesses no special advan- 
tages, save, perhaps in the case of very heavy adobe soils, to 
which it is better adapted thai^wthc Riparia. 

3. TJie Vitis cestivalis or summer grape is a native of the 
uplands of the States east of the Mississippi, and is at home 
on loam soils of good or fair fertility. It also descends into 
the lowlands of the smaller streams, so that it and the Riparia 
vine are not uncommonly seen side by side. But it is rarely 
if ever found in the larger bottoms, though quite at home in 
the lighter and usually well drained "second bottoms " or 
" hammocks." Unlike the riverside grape, it objects to " wet 
feet." It is a little subject to mildew. Of the cultivated 
varieties of the -^sfivalis grape, those of chief interest as 
resistants are Norton's Virginia, Herbemont, and the well- 
known Lenoir. The cuttings of these, as well as the wild 
vine, root with some difficulty; they should be rooted in 
nursery, and not in the vineyard itself. 

A very striking example of the resistant powers of the wild 
yEstivalis vine exists in this State, in the vineyard of John R. 
Wolfskin, on Putah Creek, two miles from Winters, just within 
Solano County. This case was alluded to in a previous re- 
port (1882), but the stock was incorrectly stated to be Lenoir. 
It has since been ascertained by Mr. W. G. Klee to be a wild 
.■Estivalis variety obtained at least ten years ago by Mr. 
Wolfskin from Alabama, under the name of "coon grape." 
It has a leaf much like the Lenoir, but bears a small, com- 



WIN'K-MAKIN(; IX CAUFOHNFA. 87 

pact bunch of sweet berries. Several hundred Muscat grafts 
were made upon this stalk when two years old, with scarcely 
any loss; and more lately some Huasco cuttings, obtained 
from the University, were similarly engrafted. Both are 
bearing heavily and regularly, while the Vinif.ra vines around 
have long since been destroyed by the phylloxera. 

4. Vitis Rupeslris, the sugar or rock grape of Missouri, is 
a very hardy vine, at home on rocky knolls and hillsides, 
w^here its wiry roots extract nourishment from the scanty soil 
and the crevices of rocks, in a climate already partaking 
somewhat of the aridity of the great plains. It would, there- 
fore, seem to be of considerable promise for the foothills of 
California especially; of its resistance to the phylloxera there 
can be no question. It is, however, not easy to root from 
cuttings, being, in this respect, like the cestiTalis varieties. 
In my personal experience I have found it to be of slow 
growth on rich upland adobe, even more so than the Riparia, 
so that when the top of the stock is sufficiently stout for graft- 
ing, that portion generally ta[)ers off very rapidly downward, 
so as to afford very little " grip " for the graft, which has to be 
tied in very thoroughly. Whether from want of care in this 
respect or from the use of too many small stocks, my success 
in grafting the Rupesti'is the third year from the cutting has 
been very slight. The successful grafts, however, have shown 
a vigorous growth, and seem well joined. The multitude of 
wiry suckers which the stock persists in putting forth to the 
end of the season, constitutes an inconvenience, shared to 
some extent by the Riparia, and least of all by the Califor- 
nica, which soon gives up sprouting its easily detatched suck- 
ers. The Rupestris is least subject to mildew of all the re- 
sistant stocks. 

Vitis Californica, the California wild grape (not, as some 
still imagine, the "Mission"' vine, which is very sensitive to- 
ward the phylloxera), Las been prominently brought forward 



88 " GRAPE CUI.TITRE AND 

as a resistant stock for use in its native state, to the climate, 
of which it must be presumed to be especially adapted. This 
reasonable presumption gives it so great a claim to attention 
and renders its preeminent success so probable, that nothing 
but the strongest proof of its non-resistance should induce us 
to relinquish its use. Even a cursory examination of its root- 
habit shows that it understands the climate thoroughly. Two 
or three strong cord-like roots start a few inches below the 
surface of the ground, from a short but very stout trunk; and, 
without branching or emitting rootlets, they go almost directly 
down for from eight to twelve inches, according to the nature 
of the soil. Then they begin to branch, but still with down- 
ward tendency, and without splitting into fine rootlets, until 
they are fairly below the point to which the summer drought 
is ordinarily expected to reach. Unlike the Riparia, its roots 
are thick and fleshy, or cartilaginous, rather than wiry, and 
one might suppose that it would invite rather than repel the 
attacks of the tender-billed insect. The latter attacks it un- 
hesitatingly, although it evidently prefers the non-resistant 
Vinifera roots when these are within reach. The bites of the 
phylloxera on the cartilaginous roots and rootlets of the Cali- 
fornica, however, do not result in the distortion'which insures 
the ultimate death and decay of the organs of the non-resist- 
ant vines so soon as they begin the ])rocess of turning into 
wood (lignification). The wound will ])e found surrounded. 
by a raised ring which makes it resemble a miniature crater; 
but the formation of this swelling does not materially deform 
the soft root as it would a hard one. As it is well understood 
that it is not so much the direct depletion caused by the in- 
sect's feeding, as the death of the roots caused by the distor- 
tion, that constitutes the fatal injury in the case of the Vinifera 
stock. The cause of the resistance of the Caiifomica is ob- 
vious enough. Here and there a rootlet, attacked by over- 
whelming numbers, may be overcome and die; but if the vine 



WINE-MAKING IN ('Al.IFORNIA. 81> 

be placed under reasonably normal conditions of existence, it 
survives the loss so caused without any sensible effect either 
upon its general appearance or, what is most important, its 
productiveness. It goes without saying that the Califo7-nicay 
like any other vine, may be planted in the wrong place, where 
its half-starved roots become hardened, and instead of yield- 
ing so as to render deformation impossible, will curve and 
curl, and finally die and decay. 

Among the many instances in which the Califo7'nica has 
satisfactorily shown its resistance to the phylloxera when 
planted on appropriate soils, may be mentioned that on the 
University grounds, where grafted seedlings, planted in 1882 
in the holes from which badly infested stocks had just been 
taken, have ever since maintained a vigorous growth and 
abundant bearing. Also that of Mr. M. Thurber, in Pleas- 
ant's Valley, to whom, in 1S82, some grafted Californica 
seedlings were sent from the University, for trial on his in- 
fested ground. They were planted among Viniferas dying 
from the attack of the phylloxera, that have since been re- 
moved. The vines on Californica roots, according to his 
statement made to Mr. W. G. Klee, are to-day vigorous and 
bearing heavily. With such facts before us, cases of reported 
failures require careful sifting before any conclusions are 
based upon them. 

. The Californica is very liable to mildew, and it is probably 
froiPi this cause that it is but rarely found on the coastward 
slope of the coast ranges, which are much exposed to the sea- 
fogs. There is, however, no difficulty in protecting it by 
repeated sulphuring up to the time of grafting. 

Vitis Arizonica^ the wild grapevine of xA.rizona and Sonora, 
resembles somewhat the Californiia in its general appearance 
and habits of growth. The leaves, however, are uniformly 
smaller and lighter colored, and more glossy ; the wood is of 
a light-gray tint, and the branches are very numerous and 



1)0 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

thin, with a tendency to the formation of long terminal run- 
ners. In rapidity of growth it seems to be nearly or quite 
equal to the Californica, and quite its equal in resistance to 
the phylloxera, as well as to drought. It is subject to mildew 
nearly as much as the former. Its roots, also, seek the depths 
of the soil before branching, and the stock is stout and 
easily grafted. From experience had at the University, it 
deserves more attention than has heretofore been bestowed 
upon it. 

SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS OF THE SEVERAL RESISTANT STOCKS. 

There is no reason why, in grafting grapevines, as great care 
should not be exercised in the selection of stocks adapted to 
the soil, and to the variety to be desired for bearing purposes 
as is done by orchardists here and elsewhere. 

Just as every intelligent fruit grower will carefully consider 
when planting an orchard, what will be the stocks best 
adapted to his soil and locality, so the grape-grower must con- 
sider, so far as experience or other considerations can forecast 
it, which among the resistant grape stocks will be likely to do 
best in his vineyard, hw improper choice will be just as 
fatal to success in one case as in the other; there is no one 
stock that is adapted to all cases. It is not a little singular 
that in this, as well as in some other points in the treatment 
of the vine and of its products, there should be a tendency to 
think of it as an exception to the general rules that govern in 
the treatment of other fruits; so that a sort of wholesale rule- 
of-thuml) is applied to it that would bescouted in other cases 
by the same persons. It has been claimed that not only the 
resistance of the Californian and other wild American stocks 
to the phylloxera has not been well proven, but that no per- 
fect union between the Vinifera gvah and the Calif ornica stock 
is formed, and that the graft is liable to be blown over at any 
time; and finally, that if successfully grafted, there is no proof 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. <)T 

that such grafts will bear, or that the grapes will correspond 
to the quality of the scion. 

As to the latter point, it may well be claimed as an estab- 
lished fact that the scion determines, in all cases, the char- 
acter of the fruit, when any is formed. To deny this is to 
deny a fundamental axiom in horticulture, which has been 
demonstrated myriads of times for thousands of years. Minor 
differences may, it is true, arise from the habits of growth of 
the stock as compared with those of the graft when on its own 
root, whether as to rapidity of development, nourishment 
drawn from the soil, adaptation to climate, etc. In this re- 
spect the vine does not differ from other fruits, for which the 
best stock has to be ascertained by trial in each region. 

As to the bearing of fruit, it is well known that, under cer- 
tain circumstances of soil and climate, it may be greatly re- 
tarded, or even suppressed. But the grafts made on the 
University grounds on Californica stocks have all borne 
abundantly and early; and apart from many other examples of 
the same kind, Mr. Packard's experience in his one-hundred- 
acre grafted vineyard, three years from the seed (reported be- 
low), is a living example, than which a stronger cannot readily 
be found for othtr vines. 

At the vineyard of Mr. W. G. Klee, in the Santa Cruz 
Mountains, near Alma, Mataro, Charbono, and Verdal 
grafted on the Californica stock three years ago, have been 
bearing abundantly ever since. Similar results have been ob- 
tained by many others. 

As to the success of the grafts whe?i properly made, the 
showing of 98 per cent, of successess in the case of Mr. 
Packard, cannot be easily excelled by grafts made on other 
stocks. As to the strength of the union, our experience here 
has been that when well made the junction becomes imper- 
ceptible and as strong as any other part of the vine. 

It is true that when a strong grower is graTted upon a weak 



<)2 GRAPE CULTlfRP: AND 

one, there may be difficulty on account of the weak base of a 
stouter trunk. But in the reverse case there is no trouble, 
for a relatively stout base for a weak trunk is desirable. The 
strong-growing Californica will, in its own home, furnish just 
such a stock for all, or almost all, the Vinifei-a varieties, which 
it exceeds in growth whenever planted in appropriate soils. 

In my personal experience with the Califorfiica, I have 
found only one variety which seems to exceed it a little in 
<^rowth when grafted, viz. : the Clairette Blanche, which is an 
extraordinary grower. In the case of five other varieties 
crafted in my vineyard (Black Burgundy, Palomino, Mon- 
deuse, Verdelho, Cinsaut) the. graft junction is at the end of 
the season either straight (/. <"., a cylinder), or like a wine 
bottle right side up, the Californica stock forming the body of 
the bottle, the graft the neck. There can be no doubt that 
in these cases the stock will push the growth of the grafted 
variety. 

Where the same varieties have been grafted on the Riparia 
or Riipestris stock, the case is just the reverse. Here the 
graft junction resembles a bottle placed neck down, and it is 
at least questionable that the stock will be able to supply fully 
the needs of the graft, and pretty certain that it will not tend 
to push the latter beyond what its growth would be if on its 
own root. In the case of the Rupestris and Clairette, the 
disproportion is painful to contemplate, the quill-like stock 
<appearing absurdly inadecjuate to the support of the graft that 
has swelled to the proportion of a man's thumb. That this 
is felt by the stock is apparent from the frequency with which 
the grafts have thrown out their own roots when on either 
Rupestris or Riparia stock, thus defeating the primary object 
of grafting at all. No such tendency is seen in the same 
varieties wherj they are on the Californica stock. 

But this, it must be remembered, happens on a soil pccu- 



WIXE-.-SIAKINfi IX ( ALIFOKXIA. 93 

liarly well adapted to the Californica, and on which the Kii- 
pestris, at least, should not have been used at all. 

Experience, which appears in some respects the reverse of 
my own, has been had by the Briggs Brothers, near Winters, 
as reported by Mr. W. G. Klee. The vineyard tract in 
question is located on Putah Creek alluvium and was planted 
with Muscat vines, which, notwithstanding the deep rich soil, 
began dying the third year from planting, being attacked by 
the phylloxera. A few years ago, a number of resistant vines 
were planted among the Muscats for trial as to their resistance 
and general success; they were, besides the Riipestiis, Ripa- 
ria, Californica, and Arizotiica, a number of the cultivated 
American vines, such as Herbemont, Lenoir, Elvira, Taylor, 
etc. On the whole, all are domg well, but of tne wild species 
the Rupestris is beyond question the strongest grower. Be- 
tween Riparia and Ai'izotiica it is hard to decide which is the 
most vigorous, but the Californica, while doing fairly well, is 
on the whole the poorest in growth, and on examination, the 
phylloxera was found to be apparently most numerous on the 
Californica roots. It was stated that in another part of the 
vineyard, not infested with phylloxera, the Calif 07'jiica is de- 
tidedly more vigorous than where it is among the infested 
vines. 

It appears that in this case the Rupestris fmds, in the more 
congenial lighter soil of the Putah alluvium, favorable con- 
ditions which are wanting in the rich adobe of Mission San 
Jose, yet without losing its resistant qualities, which on the 
whole, probably exceed those of the Califo7'nica. The lat- 
ter represents among the vines what the plum stock does 
among stone fruits, while the Rupestris (and probably the 
^£stivalis varieties) are the parallels of the peach or almond 
stocks; and doubtless they arc as little interchangeable as are 
the two orchard stocks. 



94 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

SOILS ADAPTED TO i'HK CALIFOKNICA. 

It is obviously of the utmost importance that the con- 
ditions of the successful growth of the promising Californian 
vine should be fully understood by those contemplating its 
use as a resistant stock. Searching for a data on this sub- 
ject, I was led, some years ago, to notice cases of particular 
luxuriance in its growth, and more especially those in which 
it ascends from its usual habitat in the moist lowlands, to 
the drier uplands. A very notable instance of this kind 
was fully investigated by me in 1884, and the results pub- 
lished in Bulletin No. 24, of the College of Agriculture, of 
which the relevant portion is given below : 

No. 799. Vnlley soil, taken on a creek heading near Nun's Caiion, on 
tlie Oakville and Glen Ellen Road, Napa County,"" The valley is a 
narrow " one, of a briskly flowing stream on the Napa side of the 
divide. It is not under cultivation near the point where tlie sample 
was taken, but the spot is remarkable for the luxuriant growth of wild 
grapevines which cover not only the bottom, but run high up on the 
liillsides. The opportunity seemed a good one for ascertaining just 
what kind of soil the California wild vine delights in, thus giving a 
clue to the proper selection of soils on which it is to form the stocks. 
There is apparently little change in the soil for twelve or eighteen 
inches; it is of a gray tint, stiffisn, and bakes very hard when dry, un- 
tilled; a light adobe or clay loam. For want of tools for digging, the 
soil was taken to the depth of eight inclies only. It contains no 
coarse material, save a fragment of slate here and there. Its analysis 
Tesulted as follows: 

VALLEY SOIL, SONOMA MOUNTAINS. 

Insoluble matter ()3.o5 ) ,.,^ ^,. 

^Soluble silica o.54 / 

Potash 1.66 

Soda 22 

I^ime 60 

Magnesia 1 .94 

Br. oxide of magnanese 11 

Peroxide of iron 4.5^,1 



*0n the occasion of a tour of observation, made under the auspices 
of the Viticultural Connnission, October, 1884. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 95 

Alumina 18.71 

Pliosphoric acid 17 

Sulphuric acid 07 

Water and organic matter 7.d8 

Total 99.55 

Humus 2.16 

Available inorganic .49 

Hygroscopic moisture 7.78 

Absorbed at 15° C. 

The analysis shows good cause for the preference of the vine for th 
soil, which is an unusually rich one in all the elements of plant food. 
Its potash percentage is the highest thus far observed in California, 
outside of alkali lands. Its supply of lime is not unusually large, but 
still abundant ; its phosphoric acid percentage is among the highest 
thus far found in the State, as is, outside of marsh soils, that of humus. 
In fact, any plant whatsoever might be well pleased with such a soil ; 
and the facts shoAV that the native vine can be a rank feeder when op- 
portunity is offered. These vines seemed to be young and had little 
fruit set, but whether the latter point was an accident of the season, or 
whether the soil is too rich for full bearing, requires farther observa- 
tion to determine. If the latter be true, the remedy in such cases 
would, perhaps, lie in the use of lime around the vines. 

To the above conclusions should probably have been 
added what seems abundantly obvious now, with a larger ex- 
perience and scope of observation, viz : That the Calif or- 
nica, especially, seeks calcareous soils, which, on the whole, 
are unusually prevalent in California ; and that its failure to 
give satisfactory results in the well worn soils of Southern 
France, regarding the calcareous or non-calcareous nature of 
which we are without information, may readily be referable to 
either of two causes, without prejudice to the resistant qual- 
ities of the native vine in the soils and climate of California. 

So far as observations go, it appears that the Californica 
is particularly adapted to fertile and heavy soils rich in lime. 
In these its growth is certainly extraordinary, far outstripping 
that of any other vine that has come within my observation ; 
while in the equally heavy, but much less fertile soil of the 
University vineyard plot at Berkeley, its growth has been 



96 GKAPE Cl'LTURE AND 

about the same as that of the Vinifera and other stocks on 
the same soil, .but uninfested by the phylloxera. 

Rapidity of DevelopDmit of the Several Resistajit Vines. 

That in our climate the Californica develops most rapidly 
of all, especially as to making a stock of grafting size, is 
hardly doubtful. The experiments made at the University 
from 1 88 1 to the preseiit time, as well as personal experience 
in my vineyard at Mission San Jose, fully corroborate the 
claim that the Californica is a stock of extraordinary vigor on 
favorable soils, and will bear very early grafting. It will be 
remembered that in the first experiments made with the graft- 
ing of seedlings at the University^ in 1881, of seedlings one 
year old about forty per cent, were found stout enough for 
grafting, and were successfully grafted ; a thing not even re- 
motely possible with any other species of vine yet tested, and 
least of all perhaps with the Riparia, whose seedlings are of 
exceedingly slow development. Thus, of a plantation of 
Riparia seedlings located on exceedingly favorable soil on 
Mr. John T. Doyle's place at Cupertino, not one could have 
been grafted when two years old, and only a few per cent, 
were fairly graftable when four years old. 

At my own vineyard at Mission San Jose, the stocks from 
one-year-old Californica seedlings planted in spring of 1884, 
were without exception large enough to be grafted in spring 
1885, despite a very unfavorable season. They were not 
actually grafted, however, until March and April, 1886, when, 
notwithstanding the extraordinarily dry season preceding, the 
trunks ranged in thickness from a minimum of two-thirds of 
an inch to fully one and a quarter inch, and sometimes more; 
so that two grafts could readily have been inserted in a large 
portion of them. Of the Riparia cuttings planted at the 
same time as the Californica seedlings, few exceeded one-half 
inch in thickness, and very many w^ere too slender to be 
grafted with any prospect of success, esj ecially in view of 



WINE-MAKINfi IN CALIFORNIA. 97 

their lar2;e pith. Of the Rupestris cuttings planted at the 
same time, few reached the thickness of half an inch, and 
many appeared no thicker than when planted, three years be- 
fore, except that they had at the top a short head, like that of 
an old short-pruned stock, but too short to be of any use in 
making the graft. 

In this case, however, all the conditions were most favorable 
to the Californica stock, as observed on the wild vine on its 
own ground. The soil is a medium to very heavy adobe, 
fairly to highly calcareous, and of a depth of several feet, under- 
laid by a gravelly "cement" and finally by a sandy substratum. 
Analysis shows it to be rich in potash, phosphates, and humus, 
and the experience of Mr. John Gallegos has shown it to be 
specially adapted to the production of heavy-bodied and 
deep-tinted red wines. The case is quite analogous to that 
observed in the Sonoma Mountains, as quoted above. 

A prominent case of remarkable "push" on the part of the 
California wild stock is that reported by Mr. J. E. Packard of 
Pomona, Los Angeles County, an account of which (pub- 
lished in Bulletin No. 45 of the College of Agriculture, Octo- 
ber 9, 1885) is given below. 

Bulletin No. 45. 

REMARKABLE GROWTH OF VINES. 

Scarcely more than two years ago Mr. Packard purchased, in difFer- 
-ent locations, two tracts of land of 170 and 86 acres, and immediately 
began the improvement of the same. Tiie tract of land consisting of 
170 acres is situated four miles northwest of Pomona, on the San Ber- 
nardino road, and is of the very richest soil. Planting the main body 
■of the place to vines, the wild or native California grape was secured, 
anci this year grafted to Zinfandel, Burger, and Mataro varieties. Tlie 
growth made by the vines on tliis place is simply astonishing, as no 
water whatever was used, and it is safe to assert that 98 per cent, of the 
grafted vines are growing today, where, if cuttings hai been planted, 
scarcely one-half would have lived. In many cases by actual measure- 
ment, the canes are ten feet in length, and bunches of grapes weighing 



98 (4RAPE CULTURE AND 

tliree and a half pounds each have been picked from this vineyard. 
From 80 acres about 25 tons of grapes will be realized this season, and 
when it is taken into consideration that these vines have received no 
water whatever, their condition proves conclusively that, in the right 
soil, fruit can be produced without irrigation. This soil is no exception, 
as there are many hundreds of acres of land in the Pomona Valley that 
likewise need no irrigation whatever.— [Pomona Progress, August 20 
1885.] 

MR. Packard's letter. 

Prof. E. W. Hilgard, Berkeley, Cal. : 

Dear Sir : In response to your request I now send to you a copy of 
the Pomona Progress, giving a description of the appearance of my 
Californica vineyard. I will also make a brief memoranda of the de- 
tails of my method of grafting them. I will here state that I grafted, 
last spring, about seventy-five thousand, and have now a percentage of 
loss of about two per cent, of that number. 

First, the vines were cut oflCto within three or four inches of the ground^ 
and the brush hauled away ; second, the land was plowed, the soil be- 
ing thrown from the vines; third, grafting commenced February 10, 
about three weeks before tiie vines started. For grafting I worked my 
men in sets of about thirteen, as follows : One man to shovel dirt from 
the vine ; one man to saw vine at the surface, or one inch below the 
surface of the ground ; three grafters — regular hands, who had never put 
in a graft until they commenced this job ; one man following to wax the 
union, who used a brush and wax pot; and, finally, seven men to shovel 
the dirt to the vine, covering the grat t to the top bud. Al 1 workmen except- 
ing the grafters, were Chinamen. Each gang grafted eighteen hundred to 
two thousand perday. Varieties grafted : Burger, Zinfandel, Mataro, and 
Golden Chasselas. All have made a magnificent growth. Commencing- 
grafting February 18, I substantially finished three weeks after that date 
— having something like ten thousand remaining, which were finished 
up by two or three men by April 1, when the vines were in leaf I can 
see no material difference either in penientage of loss or in growth be- 
tween the early and the late-grafted. The method used was a cleft 
graft for the larger vines — say all larger than your little finger. For 
the smaller ones a tongue graft was used, and a great many were grafted! 
which were not larger than a lead pencil. I find that the latter are 
doing as well as any of the larger ones. As a matter of experiment, 
one of my men cut the top of a vine off below a point where the roots 
branched out, and inserted four Mataro grafts in as many small roots. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 99 

These four grafts are growing now, thus proving tliat it is unnecessary 
to graft in the crown. 

I will mention the after-work when the grafting was finished. The 
iield looked like a multitude of anthills at that time, on account of the 
"dirt thrown up to the scion. I tlien plowed the land crosswise, throw- 
ing the dirt to the vine. Then, as soon as the union of scion and vine 
was strong enough, I cut the vine away, leaving one standard only> 
which I tied up. The "anthills" were leveled down, exposing the roots 
on the scion, which were cut off; and, as the union is at the surface, 
they cannot form a new, and the vine must be supported by the Cali- 
fornica root -alone. The misses which I have I find to be almost invari- 
iih]y due to tlie fact that the scion was set with its sap veins entirely 
outside of that in the root, and as a matter of course such failed to grow. 
I used a great maliy htteral cuttings with an abundance of pith ; they 
all grew, however. 

Of course, I used a great deal of care in keeping my scions in the best 
possible condition ; they were never allowed to get into a position where 
they would dry out or injure in any other way. If there are any other 
points in regard to this matter which you desire to know, I will furnish 
them to yon with pleasure. 

JOHN E. PACKARD. 

Pomona, October 2, 1.S85. 

The above statement of Mr. Packard's experience with 
Californica's grafts is reproduced here, not as an example 
of what may ordinarily be expected, but of what may occur 
under extraordinarily favorable conditions. Its publication 
called forth at the time from Professor George Husmann, the 
well known writer on viticulture, the following communica- 
tion, which was published in Bulletin 46 of the College of 
Agriculture : 

Talcoa Vineyards, NxVpa, October 24, 1885. 
Professor E. W. Hilgard, State University, Berkeley, California: 

Dear Sir: As yon desire reports about resistant vines, and grafting 
thereon, I will give a short resume of my experience here on perhaps 
the most diflScult and varied piece of ground to be found in the State, 
being "spotted" with tough adobe, hardpan alkali, poor stony soil, and 
rich alluvial lands, and therefore a harder and more severe test for them 
than is ordinarilv found. 



100 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

The new vineyards at this place, comprising about 150 acres, were 
planted by me mostly in 1882. The varieties planted were for imme- 
diate bearing: Lenoir, Herberaont, Cynthiana, Rulander, and Norton's 
Virginia, all cestivalis varieties; and for grafting, about 10,000 wild 
riparia seedlings, 15,000 Clinton, and some few thousand each of other 
rlpitria varieties, such as Elvira, Missouri Riesling, Taylor, Uhland, 
Amber, Pearl, Marion, etc. Each variety runs in most instances from 
one end of the vineyard to the other, thus getting the benefit or disad- 
vantage, as the case may be, of a variety of soils. In another piece of 
land we planted rupestris cuttings the same season, which also have 
about the same diversity of soils. 1 find a great dififereibce in growth 
on the different soils, the most vigorous being on the alluvial and adobe, 
the poorest on the hardpan alkali. Tliis may be considered applicable 
to all varieties planted, although the Herbemont seems to grow and 
succeed best on all soils. A piece of about an acre of the last named 
variety, planted in 1881, has been in partial bearing for two years, bas- 
al ways set its fruit well, and ripened evenly. The same was tlie case 
this year, when it bore a very heavy crop, many of the vines producing 
40 to 50 pounds each, and ripening their fruit evenly and well, the 
must showing 24° on Balling's scale on the fifth day of this month- 
All the (vefffivalis varieties, liowever, need a 6-foot stake, and long prun- 
ing on canes or arms, to show their full bearing capacity. The same 
may be said of the Rulander or St. Genevieve, which set well and bore 
a splendid crop on three-year old vines, must showing 2(5° Balling the 
twenty-eighth of September, when we picked them. The Lenoir, 
Norton's, and Cynthiana set but a very light crop, owing, as I think, to 
the high winds which prevailed here all summer. Tiiey ripened early 
in September, Lenoir showing 27°, Norton's 30° Cynthiana 32° Ballingr 
the must being of an exceedingly dark color, purplish black. All 
promise to make very fine wines, and as the vines are yet too young 
to show their full bearing capacity, I hope for a better yield next year» 

In the spring of 1884 we grafted what was strong enough of the wild 
riparia, and the riparia varieties, although from the difficulties pre- 
sented by the soil already mentioned, we had a very uneven stand. 
Our method was common cleft grafting, and has been described before 
We grafted on the wild riparia seedlings as follows: Sultana, Green 
Hungarian, Sauvignon Vert, Marsanne, and Franken Riesling (Syl- 
vaner). A part of the last two varieties^ five rows, were grafted on, 
Elvira, running parallel tiirough the blocks with the riparia. The 
great majority of the grafts took well, made a firm junction and a very 
strong growth wliere the vines were on favorable soil, but on the El- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 101 

vira the success was rather more uniform and the growth stronger than 
on the wild i-iparia. The balance of our grafts were mostly on 
Clinton, which proved a nnich more satisfactory stock than I had an- 
ticipated, being in that respect as good as the wild ripcu^ia, and taking 
the graft readily. The grafts on Clinton were Herbemont,. Lenoir, 
Pedro Ximenes, Chauche Gris, Traminer, Rulander or Grav Clevner 
Petit Pinot, Gamay Teinturier, Mataro. and Grossblaue. The Taylor 
although a very strong grower, does not seem to take the graft as read- 
ily as the three varieties named before, as our success was not as uni- 
form and satisfactory. 

The grafts produced some fruit last year, were prune:! for bearing 
last winter, according to their strength, and most of them bore very 
heavily, with a great difference, however, in the same variety where 
they were exposed to the full force of the wind or sheltered by the 
hillside, the latter producing more than double. The yield was espec- 
ially lieavy on Green Hungarian, Marsanne, Sauvignon Vert, and 
Mataro. In a good many instances we gathered 30 to 40 pounds 
of Marsanne and Green Hungarian from a single graft, and the growth 
of wood for next year s crop is also strong and well ripened. The junc- 
tion is so complete that it is hardly perceptible now, and the whole oper- 
ation is a complete success. The bunches were very large and heavy,, 
and tiie berries full size and of excellent quality, as a number of visitors, 
Messrs. E. H. Rixford and Wickson among them, can testify. Our 
wines, made from each variety separately, are fully fermented, and 
many of them clear now. When the time comes 1 shall take great 
pleasure in sending you samples of them for tasting and analysis. 

I am fully satisfied that instead of losing time by planting resistant 
vines and grafting them, the grafts will bear more and earlier than the 
same varieties would do on their own roots, on account of the increased 
vigor caused by the stronger growth of the stock. 

As to the alleged inferiority of the fruit and wine from such grafts, 
it seems too ridiculous for any one at all familiar with the laws govern- 
ing horticulture, and the influence of the stock on the scion, to need 
refutation. In the case of grafts on vines, I have found, during a prac- 
tice and observation of thirty -five years, that a stronger stock also im- 
parts a more vigorous growth of wood ; and we all know that the more 
vigoro-is the tree or plant the larger and more perfect will be its fruit 
That such stronger growth also requires longer pruning to equalize the 
strength of the root and top is self-evident, but I have yet to learn that 
our growers would object to the increased yield resulting therefrom. 
In my opinion, the greatest perfection of the grape depends upon hav_ 



102 (iRAPE CULTllRE AND 

ing just as much to bear each seasou as it can ripen in perfection. If 
we overload it, inferior, insipid fruit will be the result, and a feeble 
growth of wood, which will also not ripen fully. If, on the contrary, 
we prune too short, a rank, succulent growth, black knot, coulure, etc., 
will be the result, and the fruit will also suffer accordingly. On this 
nice balancing of the powers of the vine more of the success of the 
vintner depends than many are aware of. 

That resistant vines planted on soil of ordinary fertility are and will 
be a success I am confident beyond a doubt. That thousands of acres 
have been planted to vines in this State which are entirely unfit for re- 
sistants or any other vines I am also convinced ; and the sooner our 
people learn that even a grapevine will not grow in waste and barren 
places, too poor to produce even sagebrush, the better it will be for tlie 
industry. 

Yours sincerely, 

G EG RC; E I r LLS M A N N . 

Zoss or Gain of Time of Grafting. — While I am fully in 
accord with Professor Husmann in respect to most of the 
points made in the above communication, and believe that 
the grafting on resistant stock should, and in fact must with- 
in a comparatively short time, become the rule instead of the 
exception in California, yet I think his broad statement that 
instead of losing time in bringing a vineyard into bearing 
time will be gained by grafting requires material restriction. 
I think the average experience will be found to be that there 
is a loss of one year, or thereabouts, when a vineyard is 
grafted instead of being allowed to bear directly from the 
cuttings, and that on the large scale the cases of gain in time 
will be very exceptional. 

In the first place, it would be difficult to find a more vig- 
orous and early-bearing stock than the Zinfandel grape, which, 
were it resistant, could be recommended as a grafting stock 
for its exceptional advantages in these respects. I doubt 
that, in the case of this vine, even the Calif 07'nica, grafted 
successfully the first year from the seed, would distance it ; 
so that when this grape or others of similar habits are in ques- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 10P> 

tion, grafting on any other stock could be recommended only 
as a matter of precaution against the phylloxera. But in the 
case of varieties of weak growth, it may readily happen that 
a genuine gain of time is secured by grafting on a vigorous 
grower like the Californica or the kinds mentioned above by 
Professor Husmann. 

Proportion of Successes to Failures of Grafts, — Moreover, 
it is altogether exceptional to find so large a percentage of 
success in grafting as reported by Mr. Packard, above. A 
loss of ten per cent, of the grafts made must ordinarily, I 
think, be considered a very favorable result; it will more fre- 
quently amount to between twelve and twenty per cent, 
varying not only according to the skill of the grafters, but 
very largely depending upon the condition of the grafts used, 
and upon the weather following the operation; also, to a not 
inconsiderable degree, upon the nature of the soil. The in- 
fluence of the latter becomes apparent from the fact that vine 
grafting must be done, either several inches below the surface 
of the ground, or, if done at or near the surface, the soil 
must afterwards be piled up around the graft for protection 
against drying out. In the case of an adobe soil, in which 
the water may remain near the surface for several days after a 
rain, the intrusion of muddy water into the cleft or cut, and 
a consequent weakness of the junction and even risk of fail- 
ure to unite, may take place. Hence, as such soils when in 
good tilth retain moisture very strongly, I incline to think 
that in them the grafting is best done within one or two 
inches of the surface, the piling up of the earth around the 
graft being relied on to prevent drying. With the same view, 
my personal experience inclines me to favor late * rather 
than very early grafting, because then the free flow of sap 
from the stock keeps the graft in good heart. 

*"Late" as regards the stage of development of tlie leaves, bat not 
necessarily late in the season. 



104 GRAPE CUI/n KE AND 

A great deal, however, depends upon the condition of the 
grafts at the time the operation is performed. When fully 
dormant, they are of course, slower in coming, but less liable 
to injury from accidents of season than when somewhat ad- 
vanced. In the latter case it may happen that moist weather 
following the grafting will push the buds too fast, before the 
stock has united sufficiently to fully support their growth, 
causing the buds to leaf out, and then, for want of proper 
support, die back to the main stem. From this condition 
the majority may recover, but a considerable percentage will 
fail to do so, or put forth but a weakly growth, leaving the 
grafter to lament a loss of twenty per cent, when, within a 
week after grafting, it appeared as though not one would fail 
to grow. If in this case the weather had been less fav- 
orable to rapid growth — that is, dry and cool rather than 
moist and warm — the loss would undoubtedly have 
been much smaller, as the growth of the scion would then 
have kept pace with the ability of the stock to supply the sap 
through a well formed callus. 

While, then, a somewhat advanced condition of the scions 
— a swelling of their buds prior to grafting — may result very 
favorably when the grafting is done late, it involves a risk 
which is not incurred when they have been kept fully dormant. 

Loss of Stocks from Graft Failures. — The grafting of a 
vine stock, as usually done, is a very severe operation for the 
plant. Were the graft not inserted so as to afitord the stock 
ready-made buds for leaf-development, a great many of the 
weaker stocks would never be seen above ground again, as 
they mostly are through the formation of "adventitious 
buds," from which "suckers" sprout abundantly. When 
these suckers are persistently removed to the end of the 
growing season, very few stocks will retain life enough to 
sprout the next year. The majority will be killed by the ex- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 105 

haustion consequent upon the repeated effort to grow, unaided 
by the restorative action of the leaves. 

While, therefore, the common practice -of removing the 
first and even the second crop of suckers is a proper rule, in 
order to throw the sap into the scion as much as possible, yet 
so soon as it is definitely apparent or probable that the graft 
will fail, the "suckering " should be stopped, in order to insure 
a vigorous stock for regrafting the following season. From 
personal experience I am inclined to think that the necessity 
of close suckering, in order to make the graft "take," is com- 
monly somewhat over-estimated; and that few grafts will fail 
altogether because the removal of the sprouts from the stock 
is omitted after the second time. From comparative obser- 
vations on grafts treated differently in this regard, I incline 
to think that allowing the sprouts to grow will often so 
strengthen a dormant stock that it will push the scion into 
life, when, had the sprouts or suckers been removed, stock, 
scion and all would have perished. 

But with the most careful treatment, and taking into due 
consideration the fact that a dead stock involves for its re- 
placement a loss of two or tliree seasons, while a stock whose 
powers have been judiciously husbanded may be successfully 
regrafted the following year, yet a certain percentage of loss 
will thus take place, involving the replanting of a cutting or 
seedling. This, with the graft failures, defers the completion 
of a full "stand," and counts in the matter of delay in bring- 
ing a grafted vineyard into full bearing. 

Considering the advantages to be gained by grafting on 
vigorous resistant stocks in regions menaced by the possible 
importation of the phylloxera, one season's delay (which I 
think should be looked for by those who graft) should not de- 
ter any one from taking this needful, and with proper care as 
to adaptation, ultimately profitable precaution. 

Crop fro7n Grafts of the Same Season. — When bearing; 



106 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

wood is used for scions grafted upon vigorous stocks, a crop 
will generally be borne the same season, sufficient to give 
some insight into the adaptation of the grape varieties to the 
local climate. The crop will, of course, be belated. If it 
matures well, nevertheless, it is positive proof that it will do 
so 'still better when older; the berries will have less sugar and 
more acid than in succeeding years. If, nevertheless, these 
amounts are fairly satisfactory, it will convey the assurance 
that when older the vines will yield a good product. It need 
hardly be added that the older the stock the more nearly the 
results so obtained approach the average result of future years; 
yet excessive bearing of grafts should not be permitted, in or- 
der to avoid weakening so as to spoil the "good half crop" 
that may be expected the second year. 

Pi'opagation of the Resistant Stocks. — Experiments on this 
important subject were made at the University some years 
ago, and the results were published in October, 1885, in 
Bulletin No. 34 of the College of Agriculture. The stocks 
experimented on were the wild species riparia, tcstivalis, Cal- 
ifornica, and Arizotiica, being those deemed of the greatest 
importance at the time. The following is the report of Mr. 
W. G. Klee, then head gardener of the agricultural grounds, 
on this branch of work : 

In a previous report (1882) an account was given of some experi- 
ments in growing wild grapevines from seed, as also of the influence of 
carbon bisulphide upon the cuttings disinfected by means of its vapor. 
It was deemed desirable to institute comparative experiments on the 
facility with which the native Californian and Arizonian vines can be 
grown from cuttings. For the sake of farther comparison, cuttings of 
the summer grape {Viih c^stivaUs) and of the Northern and Southern 
Riverside grapes {Vitis riparia and cordifolia respectively) were also 
planted under precisely similar circumstances. All the cuttings were 
taken from vines growing in the garden of economic plants ; and with- 
out exception, wholly of the previous season's wood, which was very 
thin, being on the average not more than one-sixth inch in diameter. 

The cuttings were all made about the same time, viz : at the end of 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 107 

December, 1883 ; and were cut eiglit to nine inches long. Soon after 
they were put under ground in a shady place, and there remained until 
planting time. 

The soil of the nursery bed being rather heavy loam, its condition 
was improved by a heavy dressing of barnyard manure, and with the 
subsequent addition of tifty pounds of quicklime to an area of 20x30 
feet, or about 1 .72 part of an acre. 

At the beginning of April the bed was deeply dug with forks, and 
on April 6 the cuttings were planted, some sand being spread in the 
bottom of the trench to facilitate rooting. Drills were placed 18 inches 
apart, and cuttings 4 to 6 inches in the row, two eyes being left above 
the ground, the lower one just at the surface. 

The Vitis riparia was the first to start, and was followed, in eight or 
ten days, hy the Arlzonica ; the Californica being the last, fully three 
weeks after the riparia, and starting quite slowly. The festivalis started 
a trifle sooner than the last mentioned. 

During the season (which, as will be remembered, was quite a moist 
one) the bed did not receive any watering, but was kept clean and well 
worked. 

Small as these cuttings were, their growth has been very good, and 
as shown in the table below, a large percentage of all the varieties 
rooted ; each kind exhibiting its peculiar habit of growth. 

The riparia, whicli started first, was also the first to stop, the leaves 
all turning yellow at the end of September. The Arizonica, at the 
same time, showed signs of having made all its growth, but kept a good 
-green color; while the Californica still continued to grow vigorouslv. 
■The same order, precisely, was observed in the 4-year old vines from 
which the cuttings had been taken, so that it doubtless represents fairly 
the respective habits in this climate. 

The bed at the time presented an interesting sight ; the riparia with 
its long spreading canes and fading color contrasting strikingly with 
the bush-like, upiight habit of .the Arizonian vine, and both with the- 
running but more robust habit of the Californian. The leaves of the 
latter only yielded to frost and remained on the canes until spring. 
The Arizonica dropped them soon after the first frost. 

The following table shows at a glance the main points in the growth 
of the several species: 



108 



GRAPE CULTURE ANT) 



Name. 




Diameter at 

Root Crown— 

Jnch. 



Vitis riparia j 

Vitis Arizonica I 

Vitis Californica I 

Vitis aestivalis . . . : 



3-8ths. 
o-16tlis. 
7-16tlis. 
3to4-16tlis. 



The roots of the cuttings exhibit tlie same striking differences observed 
in the seedlings of the same species. The Californian vine has by far 
the most vigorous roots, as well as the smallest number, and these strike 
directly downwards. The roots of the Arizonica are next in vigor, 
and also strike straight downwards, but are much tougher in texture. 
The riparia has a great profusion of roots, but of a much more spread- 
ing habit, apparently seeking to remain near the surface — a habit it al- 
ways retains when older, and to which its early starting may in part be 
due. The a;stivalis^ although apparently the smallest and weakest 
grower, yet developes a powerful root system, with a more downward 
tendency than the riparia, and in deep soils, or wiiere roots can pene- 
trate deeply into the substratum, it should do well. Its roots are, dur- 
ing tlie first few years, stronger in proportion to the top than is the 
case with any of the other species tested, and this speaks strongly in its 
favor for use as a grafting stock. 

As it is in many cases of importance to be able to distinguish the 
canes of the several wild species from each other, I call attention to the 
distinctive characters afforded by the configuration of the pith at the 
nodes or eyes, when a joint is cut lengthwise; a subject to which atten- 
tion was first called by the late Dr. Engelmann, and of whicii examples 
referring to Eastern species are figured in the Bushberg catalogue for 
1884. In these figures the pith of the riparia shows at the node a thin 
cross partition ; in the cordifolia or Southern riverside grape, this parti- 
tion is quite thick. In the Souttiern Muscadine or ScuppeVnong grape 
{ V. vulpirui) the partition is entirely absent ; while present, in varied 
forms, in all other American species. The difference between the V. 
Californica and Arizonica in respect to the partition is almost precisely 
the same as that between the cordifolia and riparia, and will serve, to 
distinguish the cuttings from each other; the cross partition in the Ar- 
izonica being quite thin. Figures are, of course, needed to illustrate 
these points more exactly, but when once noted they are easily recog- 
nized. 

W. G. KLEE. 



VVINP>MA.KING IN CALIFORNIA. 109 

The above record of observations made by Mr. Klee are confirmed 
by the experience of others, had during tlie past season. As regards, 
first, the rooting of Californica cuttings, the same percentage result as 
to success is reported by Messrs. Coates & Tool of Kapa, who state that 
while they have had little success with cuttings from wild vines, 
they are well satisfied with the outcome from cuttings made from cul- 
tivated Californica stocks. Mr. J. H. Wheeler reports similar success^ 
The same seems to be true of the Arizonica, which was at first reported 
to root Avitli great difficulty. It is true that the season of 1884 was 
an unusually favorable one. for the rooting of cuttings; but in the nur- 
sery the same conditions can be artificially kept up at any time ; and 
in 1885 the results were as good as in 1884. 

Of the above varieties the riparia is the one of which the cut- 
tings can unhesitatingly be planted directly in the vineyard ; 
the Arizo7iica is next ; while the rest, including the 7'upest7'is, 
should preferably be rooted in nursery. It is true that the per- 
centage of successful rooting of Arizonica is in the above table 
practically the same as that of the riparia\ but the extreme thin- 
ness of the cuttings of the former renders them so much more 
delicate in handling that only experienced hands could be 
trusted with planting them in the vineyard, and from the 
same cause, their vitality is easily injured by exposure to 
drying-out, such as is but too apt to occur in the wholesale 
method of planting. 

From what I have seen of the growth and habits of ripa?-ia 
seedlings, I should not incline to their use in preference to 
cuttings, on account of their delicacy and extremely slow 
development. It is quite otherwise with the Californica, of 
which even very small seedlings grow very readily and rapidly, 
and are very tenacious of life under very adverse circumstan- 
ces. In regard to the latter point, I state that in my own 
planting, a bundle of about two hundred moderately sized seed- 
lings were, by the carelessness of a workman left exposed in an 
open field, with only a doubled jute sack to cover them from 
the sunshine, which prevailed quite holly during at least half 
of ten days during which they remained in this position. 



no GRAPE CUT.TURE AND 

When discovered, some of the smaller ones on the outside of 
the bundle were completely dried, but the majority were only 
somewhat wilted, and fully 80 per cent of them lived after 
planting in the nursery. This tenacity of life is a strong 
recommendation for the seedling CaUfornica, as most likely 
to insure a full stand, even under conditions that would 
seriously diminish the percentage of success with even the 
most easily rooted cuttings. 

Differences in the Earliness of tlie Several Stocks. — An im- 
portant point of which the exact influence cannot yet be fore- 
seen, but which deserves serious consideration, is the relative 
earliness of the several resistant stocks. However little the 
stock may specifically influence the character of the fruit, it is 
probable that one and the same grape variety grafted on the 
riparia on the one hand and on the CaUfornica on the other, 
would be materially influenced in the earliness of its start in 
spring, as well as in the maturity of its fruit, by the roots 
upon which they are severally dependent for the rise of the 
sap. The rupestris is even a more extreme case than the 
riparia^ for this spring it has started on an average at least 
one week in advance of the riparia on the same soil, making 
possible, according to Mr. Klee's estimate, a difference of 
nearly four weeks as between CaUfornica and 7'upestris. In 
my vineyard at Mission San Jose, the actual difference this 
season has been about three weeks. 

This consideration becomes very serious in relation to 
damage from frost, which would be likely to be much greater 
on riparia roots than on those of the CaUfornica. Again, as 
regards the ripening of grape varieties which it would be desir- 
able to blend, and which yet ripen too far apart in time to 
be fermented together, it might be practicable to retard the 
one and advance the other by judicious selection of the stock,, 
so that both should ripen nearly or quite at the same time. 
Similarly it might be feasible to make the same grape variety 



WINE-MA XING IN CALIFORNIA. Ill 

come in at two or more different times, so as to diminish the 
rush of its vintage, and enable us to use it for <>;rape blends, 
in different combinations which otherwise would not be pos- 
sible until after fermentation. Exctllent opportunity for 
observations on these points will be presented at Mission San 
Jose during the season of 1887. Thus far the present sea- 
son's experience, and that of others who have had opi)ortun- 
ity for comparative observation, does not tend to show as 
great a difference as might have been looked for. 



CHAPTER Vni. 

<;rafting the vine. 

I hardly need call attention, after the foregoing chapter, to 
the importance of this operation, on which so much of the 
success of our vineyards depends. But it is not alone the 
advantage it gives us in transforming a non-resistant vine into 
a resistant one. Its advantages are manifold, and may be 
summed up as follows : 

1. The facility by which new and rare varieties may be 
rapidly increased, by grafting on old, healthy vines, often 
making a growth of from 10 to 20 feet the first season. 

2. The short time it takes to fruit new and untried varie- 
ties, as the grafts, if strong enough, will bear a few bunches 
the first season, and nearly a full crop the second. 



112 G R A PE CT' I/rU H E AND 

3. The facility by which vines of worthless or inferior 
varieties can be changed into valuable bearing vines of supe- 
rior fruit. 

4. Varieties which will not grow readily from cuttings will 
generally graft easily, and can thus be propagated faster. 

5. Most important of all, it gives us the means to success- 
fully combat the phylloxera, as we can change a non-resis- 
tant vine into a resistant one, by grafting on a resistant root 
near or above the surface; or by reversing the case, grafting 
eight or ten inches below the ground resistant cuttings on 
non-resistant roots, when the scion will take root at the 
junction, thus transforming itself into a resistant vine in time; 
while the stock will furnish the sustenance temporarily, to 
make it grow rapidly and vigorously. 

All these advantages are so great that they will be obvious 
to any one. Being convinced of its importance, we will now 
consider wJieii and how the operation should be performed. 
I shall not try to w^orry and confuse my readers with many 
complicated methods, but only mention a few of the sim- 
plest. Although the vine may not graft with the same ease 
as some other fruits, as the cambium and inner bark of the 
vine is very thin, yet it presents no serious difficulties, and 
if properly performed, from 75 to 90 per cent, of the grafts 
will grow. 

First, as to the proper time. Although it may be done in 
this State as early as February; yet, if the scions are left dor- 
mant, I would rather wait until April or even May, although 
this will vary with the seasons and location. If the sap is 
flowing rapidly at the time, no matter ; the junction will be 
formed all the more readily, provided it is done rapidly and 
•well, so as to avoid exposure to the air in stock or scion. A 
lot of grafts were put in by me the first week in April this sea- 
son.. As I was culled away by business, I could not finish un- 
til ten days later, and a few vines of new varieties were grafted 



WINE-MAKINf; IN CAI.TFOKNIA. 118 

■Still ten days later than these. Strange to relate, the last 
started first, the second lot next, and the first last of all. 
At the present date, June 28, many of the grafts have made a 
growth of seven feet, and show from three to nine bunches of 
fruit. These are Marsanne, grafted on four-year-old Char- 
bono, Vinifera on Vinifera. This may serve as an illustra- 
tion. About 90 per cent, of the second and third lot are 
growing; of the first, about 75 per cent., and only now 
starting into vigorous growth. All the scions were kept dor- 
mant, by being buried in a shady place. 

Next, as to the ^xo^^x: cJioice of the scions. This I consider 
very important. The scion should be of medium sized, short 
jointed, firm wood, with well developed buds, and, of course, 
well ripened. The large canes are inconvenient, and gener- 
ally too loose and pithy in their texture to make good scions, 
while the small wood has generally only a single bud, which 
is easily rubbed off and therefore liable to fail. About the 
size of a common lead pencil will be best, though somewhat 
larger scions may be used on Ireavy vines, and smaller ones 
on correspondingly small vines. Here the good sense of the 
grafter is the best guide, and a little practice will soon make 
perfect. 

As to the best methods, they will all succeed; if they fulfill 
one great requisite, perfect union of the inner bark in stock 
and scion. As this is thicker on large stocks than on small 
ones, and comparatively thicker on stock than scion, it be- 
comes self evident that the scion should be set deeper below 
the rough outer bark of the large stock, than the comparatively 
thin bark of a small one. With these few general hints, I will 
now describe a few of the simplest, and most common as 
well, as most successful methods. 



114 



€tRAPP: CULTURE AND 



COMMON CLEFT GRAFTING, 



This is done by cutting off the stock horizontally, at some 
smooth place below the crown or the ground. I prefer to 
have about an inch of smooth wood, above a node or joint in 
the vine. The reason fur this is, that the cleft of the stock 
ought to be about an inch long, 
and in sjjlitting, the inter\-ening 
node, (or whorl of roots) will 
prevent it from splitting farther, 
as it will then close well around 
the graft. Now split the stock 
longitudinally, with a sharp knife, 
chisel, or pruning shears. In 
grafting stocks not larger than 
an inch in diameter, I use the 
shears for both the horizontal 
and longitudinal cut, as on these, 
I insert but one scion; I choose 
the smoothest side for its ins'er- 
tion, keeping the blade of the 
shears on the side where the scion is to be inserted. (Fig. 6.) 
This will prevent bruising of the bark. Then I prepare the 
scion. With a sharp knife, I cut a simple wedge (Fig. 7.) 
beginning at an eye or beed, and cutting a long sloping cut 
toward th? middle, and a similar one on the opposite side. 
The side of the wedge should be thickest at the eye, and 
thinner toward the other side. Now open the cleft where you 
wish to insert the scion, and push it down firmly until the 
bud is even with, or just above, the upper surface of the 
stock, taking care to fit the inner bark of the sciOn closely to 
that of the stock. If the stock is large it may require a small' 
iron wedge to open it, bent to one side, (Fig. 8.) and to 
insert two scions, one on each side. If the operation is 




Fk;. 6. 



I 



\ViXE-MAKINf; IX fAI.IFORNIA, 



115 




116 



(4RAI'E CULTURE AND 




performed below the ground, as is generally the case, and 
the stock is strong enough to 
hold the scion firmly, no bandage 
is necessary. A little moist earth, 
pressed upon the cut of the stock 
and around the wound, is all 
the sealing it needs. But if the 
stock is small, it ought to be firmly 
tied with raphia, or strands of rice 
straw, as found ni the matting 
around tea, which makes a very 
good bandage. Draw the cut 
firmly together, and wind the 
wrapping around the stock evenly 
until the whole cleft is covered. Fig. 8. 

I generally take three buds to the scion. If above ground, it 
ought to be waxed, that is the whole cut covered with graft- 
ing wax of some kind, to exclude the air. 

A variation of this method is. to make a slanting cut in 
the side of the stock, downwards to the middle, then cut 
your scion to a simple wedge as above, and push it down on 
one side, so as to join the bark of the stock. This has the 
advantage that the stock need not be cut off, in case the 
scion does not unite with it,, and as the fibres of both, the 
scion and the stock, are cut transversely, the pores join bet- 
ter. As soon as the scion starts, cut off the stock above it, 
taking care, however, not to disturb the scion in the operation.. 

Another common method is the so called English cleft, or 
splice graft, (Fig. 9) especially applicable to smaller stocks, 
when the stock is not much larger than the scion. A sloping, 
transverse cut is made on a smooth place of the stock, up- 
wards, and a similar one on the scion downwards, then a 
split is made longitudinally, from the middle of the transverse 
cut ; in the stock downwards, upwards on the scion ; and 



WINE-MAKING IN CAJ.IFOKNIA. 



117 



1 

I 

Fig 



the upper wedge of the scion, thus formed, is pushed into 
the slit on the stock, until both fit close- 
ly, and the lower end or lap of the scion 
rests closely upon the lower bark of the 
stock. Here also, care must be taken, 
that the inner bark of stock and scion 
fit well. It is then bandaged as the 
cleft graft. 

A modification of this is the so called 
Champin graft, called so from its inven- 
tor, Aime Champin, but I cannot see that 
it is superior in any way to common 
0. splice grafting. 

There are a great many other methods, as saddle grafting, 
grafting by approach, inarching, etc., but I wish to confine 
myself to only the simplest and most generally successful. 

This is the " modus operandi;" now for its practical appli- 
cation in the vineyard. 

In grafting in this State, we generally have one or the 
other of the following objects in view, viz. : 

1. Changing worthless vines into something more valuable 

2. Grafting noble vinifera vines on resistant stocks, to in- 
sure them against phylloxera. 

3. Grafting the most valuable resistant vines, for immedi- 
ate bearing, on non-resistant stocks. 

We will commence with No. i and suppose a case of a 
four-year-old vineyard of Mission or Malvasia, to be con- 
verted into Semillion or Petit Syrah. Choose your scions as 
indicated before, then graft them under ground, at the first 
smooth place you can find. I would cleft graft these, or use 
the modification of side grafting, as mentioned before. Di- 
vide your labor as follows: Let one man dig away the earth 
from the vine, until he comes to a smooth place, then saw or 
cut off the vine about an inch above a node or whorl, also 



lis n R A P K C'U LT l^ RE AND 

making the longitudinal cut. The grafter follows, cutting the 
scions and inserting theni. He can carry his tools in a bas- 
ket, for greater convenience, keeping the scions in a moist 
■cloth, and ought to be the most careful one of the lot, for 
on him depends the success mostly. A third follows, press- 
ing moist earth on the top of the stock and around the cut, 
and then filling up with finely pulverized earth to the top 
of the scions. If large enough to hold tlie scions firmly, the 
stocks need not be tied; if small, they should be; if very 
large, two scions ought to be inserted, one on each side of 
the stock. I need hardly mention that care should be taken 
not to move the scion in tying. 

We come now to the second case in point, grafting a 
young re.sistant vineyard with non-resistant vines. In this 
case, we will suppose the vines two or three years old, from 
half an inch to an inch in diameter. These we can graft 
above or below the surface, as we may choose. Grafting be- 
low the surface no doubt will be more successful, as there is 
not so much danger of drying out. Still this can be over- 
come in a measure, by making a false surface ; that is, by 
making a mound of earth above the ground, and around the 
graft, and there is certainly less danger in removing suckers 
to disturb the graft, so that, on the whole, the advantages 
may be evenly balanced. In any case, we select a smooth 
place for insertion, as before described, and either cleft or 
splice graft; for larger stocks, I prefer the first, for smaller 
stocks the latter. If grafting below ground, and a force of 
six men is at command, they can be utilized as follows: One 
to dig around the vine, to take away the soil to a smooth 
place ; another to follow with a sharp [)air of pruning shears 
to cut the stocks horizontally and longitudinally, to receive 
the graft. If the cut is made somewhat transversely across 
the fibers, so much the better, as it will increase the chances 
of a union. This can also be modified by leaving the stock, 



WIXP>MAKING IN CAmFORNIA. 119 

making only the transverse or slanting cut, as described be- 
fore. One cuts the scions, for which purpose he needs a 
very sharp, thin-bladed knife ; a good budding knife is about 
the best that can he had. A fourth inserts the scions, which 
should be kept moist, not wet, by wrapping in a piece of moist 
cloth ; the fifth ties, with raphia, basswood bark, or rice 
straw, taking care to wrap the whole cut smoothly and evenly; 
and the sixth covers up, first pressing a little moist earth on 
the cut, and then filling up around the scion to the upper 
bud, making a small mound around it. This division of 
labor has the advantage that each hand has to perform only 
one single and very simple operation, which he can soon 
learn to do to perfection, and that even very common hands 
can be used for the first and last operations. Nos. 2, 3, 4 
and 5 ought to be the most careful hands, as is obvious, but 
any good, handy man can soon learn these to perfection. 

It will hz easily seen how this can be varied by grafting 
above or just at the surface. This will save the labor of dig- 
ging around the vine, but increase the " mounding up " 
around it. In this case I think that bandages and grafting 
wax should be used, which one could apply with a brush after 
t'le scion is inserted, over the surface of the stock, and over 
the side on which the scion is inserted, covering the whole 
place of union. If the one who ties follows closely, the 
bandage will hold more firmly on the grafting wax. A very 
good wax for the purpose is composed as follows : Two- 
thirds rosin, one-sixth beeswax, one-sixth tallow, melted to- 
gether and applied warm, not hot. It must not be hot 
enough to burn the finger. A very convenient preparation 
is made of shellac, dissolved in alcohol, say i lb. shellac in 
a quart of alcohol. This can be applied cold, and is always 
ready for use. 

3. Grafting on non-resistant vines with the best of resis- 
tants, to establish the graft on its own roots. 



120 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

To do this, we ought to graft as far below the surface as 
we can without injury to the vine, so as to secure its whole 
strength to push the graft, until established on its own roots. 
The only object I see in it here, is to multiply such varieties 
rapidly as are valuable, either for their fruit or for their wood 
for propagating. Of the first, there are but two which I 
should consider of sufficient value for wine making : the 
Herbemont and Rulander, also perhaps Louisiana, which has 
not been so fully tried, or a few of the Labruscas for table 
use, referred to before. For the latter purpose, the Cunning- 
ham and any other of the resistants, of which it may be de- 
sirable to grow a large amount of wood for propagation. 
Any strong and otherwise worthless Vinifera vines may be 
used as stocks, the ground dug away as deep as advisable, 
to just above the first whorl of strong roots, the vine sawed 
off, say I Yo inch above the node, and one, two, or even 
more scions inserted, according to the strength of the vine. 
The cut will heal over quicker when more scions are put on, 
and if some of them should be superfluous, they can be cut 
off afterwards. Cleft grafting will be most practical here, and 
the scions should be long enough that the upper bud is above 
the surface of the ground. No tying will be necessary. 
Then fill up with finely pulverized soil, pressing it firmly over 
and around the cut, to the top bud of the scions. If the 
scions have good, strong fruit buds, you can have the pleasure 
of tasting their fruit that summer. A Herbemont, grafted 
by me on a strong Isabella vine in spring of 1852, produced 
two canes of 26 feet, and one of 30 feet long, ripening nine 
perfect bunches of fruit besides, the same summer. 

AFTER TRP:ATMENT OF THE GRAFTS. 

It will generally take some time before they begin to grow, 
as a firm union must take place first, before the scion will be 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIPYJRNIA. 121 

in a condition to grow vigorously. Do not get discouraged 
if the majority of the scions do not show any progress for a 
month, for those which start so early generally wilt back and 
do not amount to much. I have had grafts to start in Au- 
gust, and make a very satisfactory growth. As long as the 
scion is fresh and green, it shows that it receives sustenance 
from the stock, and may start at any time. They should be 
examined from time to time, as the suckers from the old 
stocks may intefere with their growth, and just as soon as 
these appear they should be removed, by digging down to the 
place from where they start and taken off clean, for if any 
part of them remains they will throw up four or five in place 
of one. The suckering should be done twice, at least, tak- 
ing care, however, not to disturb the grafts; once at about a 
month's time from grafting, and the other at about two 
months; the remainder, if any appear, may be pulled up 
easily at any time. 

As soon as the young growth on the grafts appears, they 
should be staked, putting the stake on the side from which 
the prevailing wind blows. As the young shoots are very 
succulent and tender, they are very easily blown off by the 
wind, and should be tied as soon as six inches to a foot high. 
If the stocks are strong, they will grow with astonishing rapid- 
ity, and twelve to fifteen feet of growth is very common. I 
generally leave all their laterals and pinch off the leader when 
it has reached the top of the stake, which will make them 
grow more stocky. If on strong vines, they will generally be 
ready to bear nearly a full crop the following summer, so that 
there will be little, if any, loss of time. They should not 
be tied too close, so as to give them room to expand, only 
to offer the proper resistance to the wind, with some soft 
material, either with strips of the Phormium Tenax (New 
Zealand Flax) recommended and distributed by Prof. Hil- 



122 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

gard, or DraccXna and Vucca leaves split into strips, of which 
I shall speak more at length, in "tying the vine." 

In France, there is a good deal of grafting done in the shops, 
or in nurSery. I have tried repeatedly to graft young vines in 
the shop in winter, as is done so much with fruit trees, but 
never had success enough to induce me to recommend it. It 
seems that they need a strong and vigorous flow of sap, to 
unite well, and that this is too tardy in the transplanted vine to 
make a good union. If cuttings or s.^edlings are planted in 
nursery, not too" close, and grafted the following spring, this 
may do very well. Tney ought, in that case, remain in the 
nursery until next spring, or winter, and then transplanted 
<\t once to the vineyard. This would be valuable to filU va- 
cancies especially. But on the whole I much prefer grafting 
in vineyard. The cultivation of the grafts will be similar to 
that of other vines, and therefore need not be discussed here. 

HERr.ACEOUS OR (;REKX GRAFI'INd. 

This is a good deal practiced in Hungary, and is strongly 
recommended by that eminent practical grape grower, and 
writer on viticultural matters, Herman Goethe, Director of the 
penological institute at Marburg, to whom we owe some of the 
best books on Viticulture we possess in the German language. 
It is rather a supplement to spring grafting, and would be of 
great value in many respects, if it can be made successful, al- 
so for grafting in nursery during the summer. It would be 
easy in this case, to graft the suckers of such vines as may 
have fLiiled to grow, and thus make the stand complete the 
first year. But after a trial of two seasons, I fear it will not 
prove successful here, as very few of the grafts united, but 
nearly all wilted off. I think that our summers are too dry 
at the period at which it ought to be performed, in June, to 
make it practicable. This may, however, be overcome in a 
certain measure by grafting close to the surface, filling around 



WINE-MAKIXC; IN CAI.TVORNIA. 123 

the junction with earth, to the upper bud of the scion, and 
then watering it, so as to keep it moist. For the benefit of 
those who wish to try it, I will describe and illustrate it here, 
quoting from Prof. Goethe's valuable Pamphlet " die Reben- 
verdelung " (Grafting of the Grape). 

"For over fifty years a method of grafting has been practiced 
near Funfirchen, in Hungary, and also in other districts, 
which has been called i^reen or herbaceous grafting, because 
the soft green shoots of the vine are used for the operation. 
It was practiced mostly to change single vines in vineyards 
that were of an indifferent variety, into such desirable varie- 
ties as composed the greater part, or to change whole vine- 
yards into better varieties. But it may now become of still 
greater importance, if we apply it to protect our European 
varieties, by grafting on resistant American stocks, against the 
attacks of the phylloxera, and it has already been successfully 
used for that purpose. 

"Experience in grafting all kinds of plants shows us that the 
operation is followed with a greater degree of success, Avhen 
the parts to be united are yet young and succulent, than 
when they have already become woody and hardened; always 
provided that they have the necessary firmness and develop- 
ment to be capable of germination. This is also applicable 
to the vine, and if we have to record a good many failures, 
the causes of them were mostly either due to imj^roper time 
or faulty performance of the operation itself. 

"Although the operation was fully described in the work 
of Franz Schams, perhaps the bjst informed writer on the 
culture of the grape in Hungary, which appeared in 1832, 
and although it has also been practiced in other districts of 
Hungary, for instance in the vineyards around Ofen, where I 
saw its application, yet it has not, to the best of my knowl- 
edge, been introduced into othLT provinces. This may be 
owing to the fact that most of the experiments made with it 



124 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

did not give favorable results, and therefore I applied myself 
to find the cause of these failures, and to learn the proper 
method to avoid them. I think that all are easily explained, 
and the success of the operation depends mostly on a few 
very simple points, which, however, are of the greatest im- 
portance. If performed correctly and at the proper time, 
nearly all the green grafts will grow, in Hungary as well as in 
Marburg, and even the grafts made by our students have 
taken, with only a loss of from two to three per cent. 

"As I have remarked before, the proptr time is very 
material. In districts which are subject to late frosts, the 
work cannot be performed until all danger from them is past. 
Therefore we will presume that for most districts the proper 
time would be from end of May to beginning of July. But 
the best guide in this respect is the condition of the young 
shoots. The stocks as well as the scions must be elastic and 
pliable, not too woody, nor yet too soft. The pith of the 
young wood must be yet green, not show the white tinge 
which it assumes later. Of course, the buds must be suffi- 
ciently developed to grow. This is generally the case at the 
last fully developed leaf. This will explain why all shoots on 
a vine or all plants in a nursery are not in a proper condition 
at the same time, and that only those should be selected 
which are sufficiently developed and growing rapidly. Lat- 
erals with points that have already completed their growth 
are unfit for use. It is of the greatest importance that the 
stock, where it is to be grafted, is still growing and juicy, so 
that we may expect a vigorous growth. 

" It has also been observed that sunny and warm weather, 
when the vine grows rapidly, is more suited than cloudy and 
cool days, when the vine is not so thrifty. The operation 
should not be performed in the hottest hours of the day, 
therefore it will not succeed well during continued dry 
weather. 



WINI'>MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 125 

"The operation itself is very simple, as it is very similar 
to common cleft grafting. The scion is cut to a short wedge 
at a node, so that the point of the wedge is yet at the firmer 
part of the node, and the upper part cut off about half an 
inch above the bud which is expected to grow. The scions 
thus prepared are either used at once, which is perhaps best, 
or kept in water with their lower end, but the water should 
be shaken off before insertion. The leaf oi)posite the bud is 
cut back to the stem. 

"The stock should be in about the same condition as the 
scion, but may be somewhat larger than it. Cut it close 
below an eye or bud, take away the young laterals below, 
and split it exactly in the centre down to the next node or 
bud, so that the split goes down into the firmer structure of 
the node. 

"The scion is now inserted so that the outer green bark is 
even with that of the stock, and the wedge fits closely into 
the end of the split. The cuts must not be bruised in inser- 
tion, which is easily prevented by holding the split slightly 
apart. As soon as the scion is properly inserted, the split is 
firmly tied with cotton twine, especially when the lower end 
of the scion is joined to the notch of the stock. The best 
plan is to commence tying from above, so as to prevent the 
scion from slipping back. See Cut, Fig. lo. 

"After six to eight days, the scion will show very plainly 

whether a junction has been made, as in case of failure it 

is dried or withered. If the scion has taken, the leaf stem 

ft 
opposite the bud has dropped off. As soon as the scion begi'^s 

to grow, and the thread cuts into the bark, the tie should 

be loosened. 

"When herbaceous grafting is applied to the vines, 

it will be advisable to have but one shoot on each arm, and 

take off all the others; if the vine has several arms, one ought 

to be left on each of them. Of course it is important to give 



126 




GRAPE CULTURE AND 

the grafts support, if 
they have taken, by 
tying to stakes, and 
they can be bent 
down later." 

(I hardly think that 
this grafting above 
ground will succeed 
in our climate, unless 
the canes or shoots 
are bent into trench- 
es and covered with 
earth. — G. H.) 

"This process 
seems of more im- 
portance to me, how- 
ever, when applied 
to young vines in 
nursery, as has been 
done at Marburg in 
1878. In this case, 
we take young Am- 
erican vines as stocks 
and graft with Eu- 
ro p e a n varieties. 
^^ These can be remov- 
-_ ed to the vineyard the 

\ following season, and 
we would thus have 
the most suitable 
vines for planting 
on resistant roots. 

" But whether ap- 
plied to old vines or 
in the nursery, it is 



AV 



Fig. 10. 



WIN E-M A KING IN CA LIFORN I A . 1 27 

very important to take off all shoots which may come from 
the stock below as soon as they appear, and Ave have evi- 
dence that the graft has taken; so that the entire strength of 
the vine is imparted to the scion." 

This comprises about the most important information from 
Professor Goethe, in relation to green or herbaceous grafting. 
As mentioned before, my experience with it so far has been 
discouraging, and I fear that our summer weather is alto- 
gether too dry. But its advantages would be so manifold, 
that it well deserves a thorough trial. 

Mr. Clarence J. Wetmore has tried another method of 
grafting in August, with which he claims to have had uniform 
success. We know that the vines make a second growth in 
August, which may be sufficient to effect a junction between 
stock and scion. The vine is grafted in the usual manner, 
below ground, the scion taken from the young but well 
ripened wood of this year, and Mr. Wetmore claims that he 
loses hardly any, although the scions seldom grow much the 
same season. They merely make a junction with the stock, 
but grow readily and vigorously the next season. This 
method is also worth trying, where the scions may have failed 
in spring. 

These comprise about all the methods of grafting which 
are practicable here, and we can close this very important 
subject with them. It would only serve to confuse the 
reader to name and describe the innumerable varieties of 
these and others, and be of no practical benefit. 

Budding has often been tried, but as far as I know with 
little or no success; therefore I omit it altogether. 



128 GRAPE CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE VINEYARD, LOCATION, ASPECT AND SOIL. 

In this, preeminently the "Golden " State it is said that we 
have more of first class grape lands than all of Europe put to- 
gether. This may be true, but it is also true that but few of 
the best lands, those that will make a name and fame for our 
industry, have so far been planted in grapes. Those lands 
that could be planted to vines with the least labor, were the 
most easy of cultivation, and produced the largest crops; were 
generally chosen and planted. While I do not undervalue 
easy cultivation, I also believe that our rich, level bottom 
lands will never give us the wines that will rank with the finest 
brands of Europe, or even surpass them. All we can expect 
of them is a good, sound wine for the million, the every day 
drink of our people, and while I admit that this is a great 
desideratum, yet the small grower especially should aim at 
higher quality, which will make his wines and grapes sought 
for at high prices. 

Then again, our lands are very variable, they are "spotty" 
as we familiarly call it, to a very high degree. It is seldom 
that a piece of one hundred acres, or even ten to twenty, can 
be found which is alike, or only nearly so. The soil is apt 
to vary from deep, naturally drained land to hard-pan alkali, 
from stony and pebbly soil to stiff adobe or clay, and again to 
shallow bedrock, where there is not depth of soil to let the 
vine root fairly, and develop fully. It behooves every one 
then to be careful in the soil he selects, and to look over it 
well before he plants it to vines. 

The location is also a very important (question. It should 
be easy of access, should have fair transportation facilities by 



WINE-MAKIXCi IN CALIFORNIA. 120 

railroad, or, at least, a promise of them in the near future, 
for this is a question which will influence the value of the pro- 
duct very materially. Then the aspect of the place itself, 
its features, whether they allow easy communication and cen- 
tralization, should be well considered. The vineyard should 
in all its parts be easily accessible to either the wine cellar or 
the packing shed. If these can be so located that all the 
grapes can be brought down to them, or at least on a level, it 
will make all the operations a great deal easier. And for the 
wine cellar especially water facilities are a great consideration. 
If living water from streams and springs is available, that can 
be led into every story of the cellar and into every compart- 
ment, it is an advantage which can hardly be overvalued. It 
is not alone handy for cleansing casks and vats, in short, the 
whole working apparatus, but it makes the work itself so much 
more convenient and so much less costly. Besides, it adds 
greatly to the coolness and cleanliness of the place. If good 
material for building is at hand it is also a great advantage. 
A hillside for the cellar, into which it can be excavated so 
that every story of the building can be approached by wagon, 
is a great advantage, and if good building stone is at .hand 
close to it, or at the cellar, it is worth a great deal also. All 
these points should be carefully considered before the land is 
selected. They cut a very large figure in the expense account. 
It is fortunate, indeed, that our mountains are blessed with 
so many never failing springs of the purest water, which are 
available for the purpose; and that good building^ stones are 
also by no means scarce. They are one of the most attrac- 
tive features of our noble State. 

When there is no spring or stream available, there should at 
least be a good well, from which the necessary supply can be 
pumped by machinery. A wine cellar without a- full supply 
of water is a very poor institution indeed. 

There is another and serious objection, at least in the more 



180 GRAPE CULTURK AND 

northern part of the State, their greater liability to late spring 
and early fall frosts. It is rather unpleasant, as well as labor- 
ious, costly, and fatiguing to watch the thermometer every 
cool night, to see if it does not approach the fatal 32'^, and 
although I hope to show in a subsequent chapter that frosts 
need not and ought not to be as destructive as is now sup- 
posed, yet it is a very discouraging thing so see a vineyard, 
beautiful in promise but the day before, blackened and wilting 
before that invidious enemy in the morning. It is well known 
that an elevation of a few feet is often sufficient to save the crop; 
therefore gently sloping hillsides should always be preferred 
to valley lands. 

As to the particular aspect, this is not so important in this 
State, where all grapes ripen well enough, and are rich enough 
in sugar. The northern and northwestern slopes, however, 
when not too steep, generally have the deepest and richest 
soil, though there are exceptions even to this rule. The tim- 
ber growing on the land is generally a good indication of its 
adaptation to vines. Where there are large and heavy oaks, 
manzanita and madrona, where the poison oak (rhus toxico- 
dendron) grows luxuriantly, interspersed by the hillside fern, 
and also in the red soil of the redwood region, where this no- 
ble tree, the fir and Douglass spruce flourish, the soil is well 
adapted to the vine, though in the latter region also difficult 
to clear, an item which should also be taken into considera- 
tion. 

Chemical analysis of the soil, of course, will show us 
whether that particular soil is desirable. But the difficulty 
has been mentioned before under which we labor here. Our 
soil is so diversified that a chemical analysis, unless made of 
every acre or two, will not give us anything positive to stand 
upon for a large tract, however sure it may be for the partic- 
lar spot from which the soil was taken. 

I prefer the soil to be light and friable, although I have 



WINE-MAKIN(; IN CALIFORNIA. 131 

seen fine vineyards and excellent wines from tenacious clay or 
adobe soils. Still such soils are very difficult to work, as they 
bake and roll w^hen wet, and get very hard when dry. If the 
soil is free from stones, so much the better, for stones make 
it disagreeable to work, although stony soil, if otherwise rich, 
will make fine wines. But avoid hardpan and alkaline soils, 
as they are not suited to the vines, will produce but little, 
and that little of inferior quality. It should not be too 
steep, as that makes cultivation difficult and costly. 

With these general hints, I will shortly sum up the re- 
quirements of as nearly perfect a vineyard as I can imagine. 

1 . Easy access to market by railroad or water, and from 
vineyard to cellar. 

2. Gently sloping lands, not too steep nor too flat. 

3. Abundance of water. 

4. Good location for cellar and packing sheds, and, if 
possible, good building stone. 

5. Freedom from frosts. 

6. Deep and friable soil, which, for red wines especially, 
should be rich in iron and other minerals, to give color and 
tannin. 



CHAPTER X. 

PREPARING I'HE SOIL. 



' This is very important, es[)ecially'in tenacious soils, clay 
and adobe, which should be deeply stirred, to enable the 
roots to penetrate it. Where the soil is naturally loose, it is 



132 OKAPE CULTURE ANJ) 

not so imperative, although it is 'always well to have it thor- 
ooghly mixed and pulverized. 

Of course, I take for granted that the soil has been cleared 
of all roots, stumps, stones, etc., before plowing. When the 
soil has been thoroughly moistened by rain, so as to work 
satisfactorily without being wet, put in a good team with a 
strong turning plow, which can make a furrow of from lo 
to 12 inches deep. If two horses cjnnot do it, put in four, 
and follow in the same furrow with a subsoil stirring plow, 
that will only loosen the soil, not turn it. This ought to stir 
it from 4 to 6 inches deeper, so that the whole depth is from 
14 to 16 inches at least. Of course it depends on the 
nature of the soil how many animals ought to be used, as it 
will be much harder of draft in tenacious, clayey soil, than in 
loose and friable earth. Where stones, roots, etc., are 
turned up, they ought to be piled up and taken out; and it 
will be well to employ an extra man for that purpose, who can 
follow the plows, and remove any obstacle they meet with. 

After thus thoroughly loosening the soil, it should be har- 
rowed crosswise, and then gone over with a clod-crusher or 
drag, to leave an entirely smooth and even surface. Remem- 
ber that you are laying the foundation for work which is ex- 
pected to last your lifetime and longer, and rather spend five 
or ten dollars worth more labor to do it well, than to do it 
poorly. 

Wet spots should be drained by gutters, either of tiles or 
stones. Make a ditch 3 5^ feet deep by at least a foot wide, 
setting two stones on edge, then laying a flat one on top; 
then throw a layer of straw over these and some loose stones 
on top, filling up with soil. These I have found to carry off 
the water better than drain tiles, and where stones are con- 
venient, they are much cheaper, and help to clear the land,, 
as it will take a good many stones, which will be buried 
under ground, instead of being obstructions in cultivating. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 133- 



CHAPTER XL 

HOW TO LAY OUT AND PLANT A VINEYARD, 

Every vineyard ought to have a main road or avenue, into- 
which all others lead, and which should therefore, if the loca- 
tion will permit, be as near central as possible. If the 
ground is rolling, and cut up by ravines, the greatest conven- 
ience in hauling and carrying will have to be consulted. Ir 
ground nearly level, or gentle slopes, the most convenient 
and economical plan will be to lay it off in squares of about 
two acres each, but making the squares double as long as 
they are broad, to facilitate the carrying of the grapes, stakes^ 
fertilizers, if necessary, etc. The best distance between the 
rows I consider 8 feet, though many plant 7 feet, and even 
closer, while others contend that they should be still further 
apart. Eight feet will give room for convenient working,, 
and also give sufficient space to the roots. It will take 
blocks of 25 rows broad and 50 rows long to make about 
two acres of vines, but if we want to include the avenues in 
the measurement, the block should be 24 by 48. The first 
will give 1246, leaving off the four vines at the corners, for 
greater convenience in turning, the latter 1148 vines to each 
block . 

The next thing we want is a lot of markers; that is, short, 
thin stakes, split of redwood, say 15 to 20 inches long, and 
about half an inch in diameter. They are tied in bundles of 
100 to 200, and to make them more apparent, the tops can 
be dipped in a tub of whitewash. This, with two long lines 
as long as a block at least, or 400 feet, and a short one to 
reach across the block, or 200 feet, two measuring poles- 



134 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

8 feet long, and four men, complete our equipment for the 
simplest and most expedient plan for laying off I have yet 
tried, and which will always give straight lines, if the avenues 
are correctly marked. 

We commence by establishing the main avenue or road, 
first running a straight line through the center, if our piece of 
ground admits it, in dimension and nature of soil. This we 
do by setting a few long stakes or guides, then drawing our 
line from one to the other, one of our men having hold at 
each end, and he takes a measuring pole eight feet, or any 
other desired distance, the fourth carries a lot of markers, 
putting one down every time the distance is measured, and 
counting. When twenty-five are counted, the breadth of a 
block, omit one, measuring sixteen feet to the next, so on to 
the end of the field. We now run another line, parallel with 
this, but sixteen feet from it, in the same way, and this es- 
tablishes our main road or avenue. 

W^e now measure in the same way around each block, tak- 
ing care to have them at right angles. If the main avenue 
runs north and south, we run our next line below east and 
west, or the reverse, and count fifty ; from there to north and 
south again, counting twenty-five, and back to the main 
avenue and the 25th marker. It is best to establish all the 
outside lines of the blocks first. When we get this done, the 
rest will be comparatively easy. We now draw a long line 
from marker 2 longitudinally, over the block to marker 2 on 
the other end, also the other long line from marker 24 to 24 
at the other end. Two of our men now take the short line 
on each side of the block, holding them to the next marker 
east, while the other two take each a bundle of markers, and 
put them down in the angle of the crossing lines. If the men 
move lively and precisely, and take care -to stretch their line 
well, it can be done very fast and accurately. As soon as 
the marker is down, they both move the line to the next, and 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 135 

SO oil until to the end of the block. The long lines are then 
moved to Nos. 3 and 23, and the same repeated until the 
block is finished. The intelligent reader will easily see how 
this plan can be varied, according to circumstances, distance 
to be planted, location, etc. If we have rooted vines, we 
make holes next, to receive them. This is best done with a 
spade, putting the spade down just above the marker, as near- 
ly perpendicular as can be, taking out its full depth, say 
twelve inches, and putting the ground taken out on the upper 
side of the hole. The planter follows with the vines in a pail 
partly filled with water, to keep the roots fresh. The roots 
should first be shortened into a uniform length with knife or 
shears, and if resistant plants are used, which are to be grafted 
afterwards, the lower buds along the stem should first be 
cut out, as mentioned before, to prevent suckering. In 
planting, spread the roots evenly at the bottom of the hole, 
giving them a downward position, (Fig. 11), then fill up with 
well pulverized, moist soil, which may be pressed down, but 
not roughly tramped, with the foot. The top or head of the 
young vine should be even, or a little above, the surface of 
the ground, and come out close to the marker. 

Any time during the winter is a good season for planting, 
but the ground should work well, be neither too wet nor too 
dry ; and if planted early and heavy rains follow, the ground 
around the young vine should be stirred and made mellow in 
early spring. I do not think there is much gained by very 
early planting, as the ground is too cold then, to give the 
young vine much of a start. But we are often crowded with 
other work in early spring, and the vinegrower, to be success- 
ful, should always rather be ahead than behind with his work, 
and should take advantage of every spell of fair weather that 
comes to his aid. 

If cuttings are planted, it may be done in the same way, 
only I would advise taking two for each hole, to avoid 



136 



GRAPK CULTURE AND 



vacancies. They can be placed about six inches apart with 
the lower end, while the tops come together at the marker, so 
that one can be removed, should both grow. I do not think 
It advisable, however, to plant cuttings early in the season. I 




Fig. 11. -young vine ready to plant. 

would rather keep them heeled in, reversed, as is described in 
the chapter on propagation, and plant when the soil is some- 
what warm already, not before March or April. They will 
callus and root quicker than if they are put into the cold 
ground in winter. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 137 



CHAPTER XII. 

WHAT TO PLANT. CHOICE OF VARIETIES. 

I need not repeat here, what has already been said about 
resistant roots in a former chapter. I would not plant an^ 
other, even in locations not yet infested with phylloxera. Of 
them, the Herbemont, Rulander, Louisiana, and perhaps 
Lenoir may be used for direct production. All the others 
should be grafted with the best foreign or Vinifera varieties ;. 
but although that will not be done until a year later, we may 
as well consider the question here. Which are the best ? 

This is a knotty problem to solve, in a State where there 
are collections of from three to four hundred varieties, which 
pass under one name in one locality, and in the next vineyard 
or valley perhaps, are grown under another. There is an al- 
most endless confusion in this respect, and it needs great 
caution to get any variety pure and true to name. Yet there 
is nothing more vexing than such blunders, and I would 
rather have the money stolen out of my pocket by a thief, 
than to be thus swindled, whether intentionally or not. 
Therefore, be sure of what you obtain, and get it only of re- 
liable men. One of these is Mr. H. W. Crabb, of Oakville, 
Napa Co. He has a collection of nearly four hundred 
varieties, and spares no pains to have them correct. Better 
pay treble the price, it amounts to but very little anyway, and 
get them true to name. The next consideration is, " what 
do we want them for, for wine, table or market fruit, or for 
raisins } 

If for 7vine, that again depends upon locality and soil. It 
is of no use to try and grow grapes for red wine on soil that 
will not give us color, astringency or tannin, and fine bouquet. 



138 GBAPE CTTLTURE AND - 

To do this, it should be rich in minerals, in iron, especially ; 
and as enough of red wine grapes are planted already on soil 
not adapted to them, do not let us add still more to them. 
Nor let us plant any, red or white wine varieties, in soils and 
locations where they are inclined to turn into sherry and port. 
To produce fine light or dry wines, I think we will have to 
confine ourselves to Northern California, or to those elevated 
regions in the Southern counties, where grapes will not ripen 
before September, and we can take the fall months, Septem- 
ber, October and even November, to give them such gradual 
and moderate fermentation, as will enable them to attain that 
fine bouquet which alone will make them of permanent value 
in the markets of the world. Let each grower confine him- 
self to his proper sphere, taking advantage of the indications 
which his surroundings give him, and make such a product 
as he can make in the greatest perfection, be this light wine, 
or the heavy ports, sherries, and sweet wines, or brandies. 

Light dry wines being used in the largest quantities, we 
will consider them first. To make them, we want grapes that 
will give. 

1. Fine quality. 

2. Sufficient quantity to pay well. 

3. Varieties which are easy in cultivation and training, or 
in other words, which will give the best returns for the least 
labor. 

4. Varieties easy to handle and fei-nient i)i the wine cellar, 
and which are most in demand, commanding a 7'eady sale. 

With these points in view, w^e will now consider the varie- 
ties best suited to " fill the bill." 

FOR LIGHT, DRV, WHITE WINE. 

Pediv Xinienes. Synonyms, Sauvignon Vert, White Green 
Riesling, Columbar erronously. This is not a Riesling, 
but one of the Sauterne type of grapes. It is a very strong. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 139 

vigorous grower, a good bearer with moderately long pruning, 
very healthy, also suffering less from frost and coulure, and 
will become, considering all this, one of the leading varieties. 
^Vood brownish gray, dotted with darker spots, rather long 
jointed; buds whitish, prominent. Leaf dark green above, 
somewhat rough, light green below, covered with gray hairs, 
stem of leaf brownish, points of young shoots gray and 
hairy, tendrils strong, generally divided into three at the end. 
Bunch long, rather loose, shouldered, with long medium 
sized stems; berry medium, slightly oval, greenish yellow, 
translucent; thin skin, very juicy, sweet and sprightly. This 
grape makes a very sprightly, high flavored and smooth wine, 
which can bear diluting one-fourth in drinking, and still re- 
tain its full character. It has a fine persistent foliage, and 
will not suffer from sunscald. Ripens here in Northern Cal- 
ifornia about the end of September. 

Marsanne. Synonym, Avilloran. This is another of the 
Sauterne varieties, but of a stronger flavor than the former, 
therefore it should be blended with lighter varieties, such as 
Burger, for instance. Vine a very vigorous grower and im- 
mense bearer, can be grown on four foot stakes with short 
pruning. Wood dark gray with brown spots, growing 
nearly straight, rather long jointed. Leaf dark green, rough 
on upper side, grayish green below, leafstem long and stout, 
green, young points of shoots, gray and wooly, tendrils long, 
forking into 3 to 5 points. Bunch large and heavy, shoul- 
dered, moderately compact ; stem thick and long ; berry 
rather small, round, yellow, covered with white bloom, and 
when fully ripe has a brown tinge in the sun ; moderately 
juicy, rather thick skin, sweet and high flavored. A very 
healthy vine, but so productive that it is apt to overbear. 
Foliage fine and persistent, never suffers from sunscald, 
ripens rather late, middle of October here. 

Green Hungarian. Synonyms, Verte longue, I>ong Green. 



140 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

The origin of this grape is somewhat doubtful, but not its 
great value as a wine grape. I received it from Mr. 
Groezinger, under the name of Green Hungarian, have seen 
it bear for four consecutive seasons, and think it a model 
vine in every respect. Immensely productive, a short and 
stocky, but vigorous grower, splendid foliage, and easy to 
handle, it " fills the bill " more completely than any other 
grape I know. Its wine comes nearer to the Riesling type 
than the Sauterne, is sprightly, high flavored, greenish yel- 
low, and with the pleasant piquant acidity of the Riesling, 
while it will bear three times as much. 

Wood grayish brown, short jointed, vigorous. Young 
•growth stocky, green with brownish veins, furrowed. Leaf 
heart shaped, but slightly lobed, sharply but irregularly ser- 
rated, full as broad as long, light green above, pale green 
below, covered with fine hairs, young points gray and tomen- 
tose or wooly, tendrils rather thin, with only one fork. 
Bunch long and heavy, sometimes weighing three pounds, 
shouldered, compact, with a stout but rather short stem ; the 
shoulder often nearly as heavy and long as the main bunch, 
which last often has a double point. Berry small, round, 
but often {)ressed out of shape, as they are so close on the 
bunch, greenish yellow, covered with white bloom, moder- 
ately juicy, very spicy and agreeable. Ripens here about 
last of September. 

I have been thus minute in describing it, as it seems to be 
very little known, certainly not half as much as it ought to 
be. I think it will produce some of our finest wines, and is 
fruitful from every bud. Can be grown on short stakes, and 
pruned to spurs, and has produced for me forty pounds to 
the vine, on Riparia roots, the second season after grafting. 

ChaticJie Gris. Synonyms^ Gray D'Jshia, Greg Riesling. 
This is not a Riesling, but only called so erroneously in 
Napa Valley, where formerly any grape with small compact 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 141 

bunches and small berries was classed with the Rieslings. 
It belongs to the Rurgundy or Klaevner type, and is very simi- 
lar to, but not identical with, the German Rulander or Grey 
Klaevner, It is a stronger grower and more productive, with 
larger bunches and berries, though not of as high quality. 
However, it is a truly line grape, an abundant bearer with 
long pruning, though sometimes subject to coulure, and 
makes a very fine wine, if not allowed to get over ripe, or 
fermented with some grai)e of lighter quality and a more 
sprightly acid. 

Vine a strong upright grower, with straight brown wood. 
Leaf dark green above, lighter green, somewhat downy below, 
medium size, deeply lobed, young shoots green, points of 
shoots grey, tinged and edged with carmine, tendrils slender, 
three pronged. Bunch compact, mostly shouldered, short, 
strong stem; berry small to medium, pale red or grayish, cov^ 
ered with gray bloom, slightly oblong; skin rather thick, 
moderately juicy, high flavor. It ripens suddenly about the 
end of September, and should be taken when not higher 
than 25^ Balling, when it will make a much more sprightly 
wine than when over ripe. In the latter case it is sluggish in 
fermentation and apt to give trouble, unless fermented with 
some lighter variety. 

Se)nillio7i. Synonym Colombar. This is one of the cele- 
brated French varieties, a combination of it, the Sauvignon 
blanc and Muscadelle de Bordelais make the famous wine of 
Chateau Yquem. It seems to do well here, with long prun- 
ing, and certainly makes fine wine by itself. Wood grayish, 
strong and straight, leaf medium size, downy, lobed, wavey 
and irregular. Bunch medium, seldom shouldered, but 
broad, moderately compact ; berry medium, slightly oblong, 
greenish yellow, very thin skin, transparent, very juicy and 
sprightly, high flavor. Young shoots green, with grayish 
points. Ripens here the first week in October, and ni^kes a 



142 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

very delicate, high flavored, and sprightly wine, of, greenish 
yellow color. 

Trmnenir. Synonym, rother Klaevner. This is not a very 
productive variety, although a fair bearer, but it brings pretty 
sure crops, and the wine is of such superior quality, w^hich it 
will impart to other lighter wines, that it ought to be in every 
vineyard, if only a few acres. Vine a moderate grower, wood 
short jointed, thin, grayish brown, changing to ashy gray, 
hairy, buds whitish gray. Leaves small, round, thin, often 
broader than long, dark green above, light green below, 
hairy and downy, stem of leaf reddish, points of young 
shoots grayish white, with very small leaves. Bunch small, 
compact, sometimes shouldered; stem short and brown; 
berry small, oblong, or oval, pale red with gray bloom, skin 
thick, moderately juicy and very sweet and spicy, ripens 
about end of September here. Like the Chauche (jris, to 
which it is closely related, but superior in quality, it ought 
not to hang until over ripe. The noblest wine I have seen 
in this State yet was made fnjm this grape. 

Siiltafia. This is perhaps not suited to all localities, and 
should not be planted when there is danger from late spring 
frosts, as the vine starts early. Yet it makes, in northern 
California, a very fine wine, and as it is a very abundant 
bearer, with long pruning, and the berries are seedless, it is a 
very profitable grape, as it can also be used for choice raisins. 
Vine is a strong grower, brown, long jointed wood. Leaf, 
thin, bright green above, lighter green below, smooth and 
shining, deeply lobed and sharply serrated; young wood dark 
green, points greyish brown, tendrils at every joint, thin and 
slender. Bunch very large and loose, shouldered; berry 
small, round, golden yellow, covered with light bloom, sweet 
and juicy, firm and crackling, without seeds. Ripens here 
end of September, and makes a very delicate wine of straw 
color, great body, and acquiring with age a natural sherry flavor. 



WINE-MAKING IN CAJ.IFORNIA. 143 

Riesling. True Riesling, Johannisberg Riesling. This 
and the following are hardly productive enough to be classed 
with foregoing varieties, but we can hardly omit them, as 
their superior qualities for wine make them indispensable in 
every vineyard. The Riesling has given to the Rhenish 
wines their high reputation for delicacy, sprightliness, and 
the high bouquet which has made them known and famed 
throughout the civilized world. Vine moderately vigorous, 
wood straight, light brown, speckled with white and darker 
spots, short jointed. Leaf rather small, round, thick and 
rough, deeply lobed, grayish green above, light green below, 
with yellow spots here and there; leaf stem thick, reddish, 
with rough warts, points of shoots and small leaves yellowish 
green, wooly, with faint reddish tinge. Bunch small, com- 
pact, short thick stem. Berry small, round, light yellow, 
with black dots, transparent ; when fully ripe tinged with 
browm ; skin thick, juice sweet, very aromatic and high fla- 
vored, ripens first of October. 

This vine needs long stakes or trellis, and long pruning to 
canes, and is then apt to lose a large part of its crop by coul- 
ure, or imperfect setting. It is therefore not a very profitable 
grape, but like the Traminer, deserves a place in every vine- 
yard to make a superior product. 

Franken Riesling. Sylvaner, Oesterreicher. This is a 
somewhat better bearer than the foregoing, though it is also 
subject to coulure, and a difficult vine to handle, on account 
of its strong and bushy growth. Yet it makes a very fine, 
smooth, and agreeable wine, of fine bouquet, though not 
equal in that respect to the true Riessling. 

Vine vigorous, close jointed, and bushy; wood, light brown, 
with darker spots; buds, small, brown; leaf medium, round, 
slightly lobed, thin; bright green and shining, light green and 
smooth below% with yellow spots in fall; stem of leaf, short, 
thick, with reddish tinge, points of shoots bright green. 

10 



144 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Bunch small to medium, very compact, sometimes shouldered; 
stem very short and thick, which makes it difficult to pick. 
Berry round, though often pressed flat by being so close on 
the bunch, yellowish green, with a small dot, medium in size, 
covered with thin white bloom, skin thick, juice very sweet 
and spicy; ripens end of September. It also needs long 
stakes and long pruning to canes to bring good crops. 

MiiscadeUede Bordelais. Synonyms, Musquetle, Raisinote, 
Cadillac. This grape promises to be of great value here, on 
account of its peculiar, spicy flavor, which is used to give the 
fine bouquet to the celebrated Chateau Vquem wine. It is a 
very strong, stocky, robust growing vine, and seems to be 
productive. Wood, brown, short jointed and stocky; leaf 
dark bright green above, shining, paler green below^, nearly 
round, slightly lobed; points of young shoots and leaves 
brownish gray, tendrils simply forked. Bunch small to medi- 
um, shouldered, compact, short, thick stem; berry slightly 
oval, light yellow, thin skin, very juicy and sweet, with a very 
delicate, spicy and aromatic flavor. It is here hardly long 
enough to be fully tried, but certainly deserves a place in 
every vineyard where quality is an object. 

Clarette Blanche. Synonyms, Granolata, Blanquette de 
Limoux. This is also one of the recent introductions, but so 
far has proven itself a very strong grower, abundant bearer, 
and making a wine of superior quality. I would not yet ad- 
vise its general culture, but recommend it for trial to those 
who have long seasons to ripen, and strong soil. Vine a 
strong grower, wood brownish, short jointed. Leaf large, 
rough, dark green above, grayish white below, woolly, points 
of young shoots whitish gray, very downy, tendrils small, 
forked. Bunch medium, broadly shouldered, moderately 
compact, stem thick and short. Berry oblong or oval, 
medium, greenish white, very juicy, skin thin. The samples 
I have seen of the wine, were very sprightly and delicate. 



WINE- MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 145 

It ripens late, about the middle of October in Napa, and 
would therefore not be suited to northern localities, while 
well adapted further south. 

These are all high quality grapes, most of them very abun- 
dant bearers and will certainly afford choice enough in white 
wines for any vineyard. There are of couse many others, 
which are very promising, but most of them have not been 
sufficiently tried to recommend them. I will add to these a 
few varieties of not as high quality, but very productive, and 
which may be advantageous to blend with some of the fore- 
going. 

Chasselas Fontainebleaii . Synonyms, Golden Chasselas, 
Sweetw^ater, Gutedel. This grape has been successful nearly 
everywhere, is a good and regular bearer, and makes a very 
fair wine, although not of very high character. It is one of 
those vines which will not disappoint the planter, and which 
can be much improved by blending with higher grade varie- 
ties such as Marsanne, Green Hungarian and Traminer. 
Vine a strong but slender grower, which will bear well with 
short or long pruning, low or high stakes. Wood brown, 
long jointed, slender; leaf thin, deeply lobed, bright green, 
ends of shoots and young leaves brownish green. Bunch 
imedium, compact, shouldered; berry medium, round, yel- 
low, transparent, of a peculiar crackling firmness, juicy, 
sweet, but without any very high character. Ripens early, 
about the middle of September here, and is also one of the 
earliest market grapes. 

Chasselas Violet. Synonym, Koenigs Gutedel, Violet Chas- 
selas. This is a grape of higher character than the preced- 
ing, but must be })ressed soon after crushing, or the color of 
ithe wine will be too dark, turning a reddish yellow tinge. 
x\lso a very reliable bearer. Vine a strong, long jointed 
grower, wood dark brown, with a violet tinge; leaf thin, dark 
.brownish green, deeply lobed, young growth brownish. 



146 (iRAPE CUI/n RE AND 

Bunch long, shouldered, compact; berry round, pale violet 
red, and has the peculiarity of acquiring a violet tinge when 
only half grown, sweet and juicy. Makes a very agreeable 
wine, and ripens at same time with the foregoing. 

Victoria Chasselas. Queen Victoria. This is in my opin- 
ion the most valuable of the Chasselas family, as it really 
makes a fine wine, is easy of culture, and a great bearer. 
Vine vigorous, very short jointed and brittle, wood grayish 
yellow, thick and strong. Leaf bright green, deeply lobed 
and shining, young shoots with numerous laterals. Bunch 
very large and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shoul- 
dered, very compact, stem brown, very thick. Berry 
medium, round, pale lilac purple, with lilac bloom, j:uicy, 
vinous, and refreshing. This is a fine grape, easy of cul- 
ture, as it will bear well with short pruning, easily picked, 
and deserves more attention than it has received so far. 

White Elben. Synonym Elbling, Kleinberger, Kleinbeeriger. 
This variety is cultivated considerably in Sonoma Valley, 
where it bears fairly well, often very abundantly and is 
prized for the lively wine it makes, which though not of high 
character, has a very agreeable lively acid and pleasant bou- 
quet. I would also think it a fine wine for blending with Tra- 
miner, Chauche Gris or Marsanne, as it will serve to relieve 
the abundance of their flavor, and lack of tartaric acid. Vine 
a strong grower, wood brown,, with black spots. Leaf large, 
rough, heart shaped, seldom lobed, dark green above, light 
green and woolly below, leaf stem short and thick, hairy, red- 
dish, young points of branches reddish green. Bunch large, 
shouldered; berry rather large, round, but the vine has the 
peculiarity, unless the blooming season is very favorable, to 
set imperfectly, and thus a great many small berries are scat- 
tered among the large ones, which are very sweet and fine, 
but only one fourth common size. This has given the grape 
the name " Kleinb^eriger," by which it is known in many 



WINE-MAKIXG IN (ALIFORNrA. 147 

parts of Germany. It requires high stakes and long pruning, 
ripe about last week in September. 

The Blaue Elben, introduced and cultivated largely by Mr. 
L. J. Rose of San Gabriel, and of whi:h he has made some 
very fine wine, is similar to its white sister except in color. 
But although the grape is black, its juice and skins contain 
very little color and tannin, and it is used for white wine. 
There is but little doubt that these lighter varieties, the White 
and Blue Elben, Burger, FoUe Blanche, etc., may be better 
adapted for wine at the south than they are here, and prove 
the varieties for them to plant, if their aim is to make dry, 
light white wines. 

Burger. Synonyms, Putzscheer, Large White Tokay. 
This grape has become so universally known under the name 
of Burger in this State, that it will be impossible to change it, 
although Burger is only a local synonym for the White Elben 
in Germany. It is here, in Northern California, regarded as 
only a quantity grape, for it is certainly incredibly productive, 
but in the valley lands it yields an entirely neutral wine, thin, 
acid, and without character. On rich hillsides its product is 
somewhat better, and in good seasons it makes a very fair 
■wine. In the South, however, it improves and, may be valu- 
able for light wine; certainly Mr. Rose has made creditable 
wine of it at San Gabriel. However, its foliage is not very 
good, and its fruit therefore liable to sunscald. I do not wish 
to recommend it for extensive planting, but where it is already 
planted, it may be used to good advantage as a blend with 
very heavy, rich wines. One fourth Burger, added to these, 
often gives them sprightliness, and just the agreeable acidity 
ihey may need. Besides, it always ferments well, and is o^ 
value as an addition to such varieties in the fermenting vat, 
as are sluggish in their fermentation. 

Vine a strong grower, with dark brown wood, speckled 
with black. Leaf nearly round, but lobed, light green above 



148 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

with white down beneath, stem of leaf reddish, young points 
of shoots white and wooly. Bunch very large, loose, shoul- 
dered; berry round, of somewhat unequal size, whitish green ^ 
covered with white bloom, skin thin, very juicy but watery 
and thin. It need hardly be mentioned here, that this is not 
the grape w^hich makes the celebrated Tokayes wines. These 
are made from the Furmint or Yellow Mosler, an entirely dif- 
ferent grape. The Burger ripens late, about middle of 
October. 

Folk Blanche. La Folle, Enrageat. This is called "the 
crazy " on account of its heavy bearing in France? It seems 
to be somewhat like Burger in that respect, and of a similar 
character, and may play a similar role as a desirable addition 
to very heavy musts, and for fine brandies, for which purpose 
it is used in France to a great extent. Vine a moderate 
grower, with yellow brownish w'ood, marked with darker spots- 
Leaf medium, thin, smooth, pale green above, whitish green 
below, short stem, young shoots white and wooly. Bunch 
large, with uneven sized berries; berry small, oblong, trans- 
parent, yellow, covered with gray bloom, very juicy; stem 
short and stout. 

In conclusion of the description of the leading white wine 
grapes, I wish to say that I could have added a great many 
more of high promise, many of whom will no doubt prove 
valuable for certain sections of the State. But I did not wish 
to make too large a list, nor did I wish to recommend any- 
thing for general cultivation that has not been well and 
thoroughly tried. Among them I will name the famous 
White Pinot (White Burgundy, Melon blanc) the Furmint or 
yellow Mosler, Sauvignon blanc. Wests White Prolific,. 
Moselle Riessling, etc. 

MUSCATELLE TYPE. 

The making of this class of wine has so far not been fos- 
tered much, as the offensive rankness of flavor in the Muscat 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 149 

of Alexandria, generally used in white wines of that type, has 
prejudiced the public against them, so that there is but little 
demand for them now. Aside from the Muscadelle de Bor- 
delais described below, which, however, has an entirely dis- 
tinct flavor and bouquet, there is but one variety now culti- 
vated, which will make a very fine wine, dry or sweet, as it 
may be handled in cellar; this is the IV/iite Muscateller. 
Synonyms Gelber Muscateller, Muscat blanc, Muscat de 
Frontignan. This is mostly cultivated in Southern Europe, 
in Germany, Spain and France, and its wine classed very 
high, both in the dry and sweet form. The famous "Muscat 
Lunel " of France, one of the choicest sweet or liqueur 
wines, which retails as high as $3 per bottle, is made from 
this grape, and there is a certain class of customers here, 
who prefer its dry wine to any other, and pay high prices 
for it. 

Vine a strong, upright grower; wood reddish brown^ 
straight, with rather long joints. Leaf round, seldom lobed, 
generally heart-shaped, medium size, smooth, light green 
above, paler green below. Leaf stem thick and short, cords 
of young shoots greenish brown, slightly wooly. Bunch 
medium, narrow and long, compact, sometimes shouldered; 
short thick stems; berry medium, round, yellowish green,, 
often acquiring a brown tinge in the sun, covered with white 
bloom, thick skin, very sweet, with a pronounced but delicate 
Muscat flavor. This may yet become a very profitable vari- 
ety in this State, as it is a good bearer with long pruning, 
and fine wine has been made repeatedly from it. It seems to 
succeed well in the more southern sections, and more atten- 
tion should be paid to it there, for the manufacture of 
liqueur wine 

WHITE WINES OF SHERRY TYPE. 

There are quite a number of the recent importations from 
Spain and Portugal, especially among those made by the 



150 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Natoma Co., which promise highly, but they have not been 
sufficiently tested yet to spenk definitely as to their merits. 
I have already referred to the sherry flavor which the Sultana 
acquires with age, and have no doubt that it could be used 
for that purpose as well as for light wine. West's Prolific is 
evidently of this class, although it seems difficult to find its 
true name, and is a variety that will not disappoint the 
grower, as it seems an unusually heavy bearer, and" makes 
fine wine and brandy. I am not sufficiently familiar with ti 
to give a definite description of it, but have seen very fine, 
high flavored wine and brandy from it, made by Mr. West, at 
Stockton, San Joaquin county. 

Palomino. Synonyms, Listan, erroneously known as 
Golden Chasselas in Napa Valley. This has been cultivated 
here for a long time under the last name, and has acquired 
quite a reputation as an abundant and regular bearer, also 
making a good white wine, w^hich, however, always accjuires 
more or less of the sherry flavor with age. Vine a fair 
grower, wood close jointed. Leaf medium, oblong, deeply 
lobed, bright green above, grayish green and tomentose 
below, stem short, young points with reddish tint and wooly. 
Bunch large, conical, rather loose and shouldered. Berry 
round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green with yellow- 
ish tinge, thin skin, juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas, 
which has perhaps led to the misnomer, A profitable and 
reliable variety. Ripens latter part of September. 

Yelloiv iMosIe?-. Pedro Ximenes, erroneously. This is one of 
the celebrated sherry varieties of Spain, and has been culti- 
vated here with variable success. Mr. Crabb reports it as a 
good bearer on his place, while on the Talcoa vineyards, ex- 
posed to the strong winds from the bay and coast, it suffered 
badly from coulure, although the vines showed abundance of 
fruit and certainly make a splendid wine, delicate, smooth, 
and hiQ;h flavored. It is well worth a trial in locations where 



WIXE-MAKIXG IX CALIFORNIA. 

it is somewhat sheltered from wind. Vine a strong, up- 
right grower, with grayish, short jointed wood. Leaf large 
and heavy, lobed; bright green above, paler green below, 
covered with fine hairs or wool, young points tomentose or 
wooly, whitish. Bunch long and loose, some w hat shouldered, 
stems of berries very long, berry oblong, yellowish white, 
full medium, transparent, skin thin; juice sweet and aromatic, 
but also with a lively acid. Ripens somewhat late, about 
first week in October. 

Among the most promising varieties of that classs, now 
under trial, are Mantuo de Pilas, Mourisco Blanco, etc. 
All this is as yet experimental, and needs further development. 

RED WINE VARIETIES. 

Here again, we do not suffer from scarcity of varieties, but 
in fact there are so many that it is very difficult to choose from 
them. I shall therefore confine myself mostly to those which 
are well proven to succeed in this State, and give a list of 
untried but promising varieties afterwards. Let us not for- 
get, however, that the high character of a red wine depends 
largely, if not altogether, on the soil which produces it. It 
is useless to plant a red wine grape on sandy soil, lacking in the 
minerals, the substance that will alone produce color, tannin, 
and also that fine flavor which a good claret or burgundy 
should have, to compete successfully with the best brands of 
Europe. I have already given the leading ideas in Chapter 
I, the reasons which lead me to believe that we already have 
an over production of viii ordinaire, of the common grades 
of red or cargo wines; let us not add more to them, but be 
careful where and what we plant. A high grade wine costs 
no more for casks and making, and it is even handled easier 
in the cellar, and with less labor than a common one. It 
costs no more freight or casks to ship it, yet it will bring 
double and treble the price, and what is more, will increase 
the demand and build up the reputation of the State and the 



752 (4RAPE CULTURE AND 

individual grower. And I say frankly, that I do not write 
this book for those who, other things being even, would not 
take more delightin handling and producing fine wine, than in 
producing a common or low grade, even if equally profitable. 
Such men will not add to the prosperity of the business nor 
their own, and the sooner they step out of the ranks, and 
make room for better men, the more lucky for us and them. 
Zinfandel, or Zinfindal, as some call it. The true origin 
and dissemination of this important variety is not yet clear. 
It seems clear, however, that Col. Agoston Haraszthy brought 
it from Hungary, and that it was also received from some 
New York nurseries about the same time. Downing in his 
" Fruits and Fruit Trees of America " describes it among the 
the foreign varieties. Be that as it may, it has proven of great 
value in developing the wine industry of the State, as it 
proved that a really good, red wine, resembling choice claret, 
could be made in this State, a fact which was very much 
doubted before its introduction. It may be closely related to 
the most famous red wine grape of Hungary, the Kadarka, the 
description of which closely resembles it. However this 
may be, we know and appreciate it under its present name as 
one of the most valuable grapes for red wine in good loca- 
tions, and properly handled. I have yet to see the red wine 
of any variety, which I would prefer to the best samples of Zin- 
fandel produced in this State. Unfortunately these best samples 
are like angels visits, "few and far between." The reasons 
for this are manifold. While it will grow and bear abun- 
dantly in almost any soil, it is by no means a perfect grape, 
and must be closely studied to give its best results. First, it 
needs a soil rich in minerals, iron especially, to produce its best 
fruit. Then it must be well ripened, and many cannot wait 
for this, but pick it when fully colored. As, with a fair per- 
centage of sugar, it also contains abundance of tartaric acid, 
it will make a wine that is greenish, harsh and sour, if 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. Ib'^ 

picked too early. Then it ripens unevenly, often having a 
large quantity of shriveled berries together with unripe ones, 
on the same bunch. This is apt to deceive the wine-maker, 
•as the sugar contained in the over ripe berries does not ap- 
pear fully in the must, when testing with the saccharometer. 
When this is the case, and there are many of these dried ber- 
ries, the juice will really come to 25^ Balling, when it shows but 
22 to 23"^. Moreover, these dried berries are a troublesome 
element in fermentation, and need careful watching and fre- 
quent stirring to bring it through safe. But for all this, it is 
a noble grape, and deserves all the care we can give it. 

There are many locations in this State where it has been 
planted, and will not make a first-class red wine, where it 
could be utilized better for white wine. In this case, let 
the grapes be thoroughly ripe, then crush and press immediate- 
ly, but press lightly, throwing the remainder of the pomace 
into the fermenting vat, together with such red wine grapes as 
Mataro, Crabbs Burgundy, etc., and make them into red wine 
afterwards. The first run of the juice, thus obtained, will 
make a very sprightly white or rather Schiller wine (light red), 
which can be advantageously used in blending with heavier 
bodied white varieties. It generally has abundance of acid, and 
a very agreeable flavor. But this is diverging into wine mak- 
ing and I will return to the subject of grapes, asking the read- 
er's pardon for overstepping my limits here. 

Vine a vigorous grower, with grayish brown wood. Leaf 
dark green, lobed, with lighter green below, rather hairy or 
wooly, long; leaf stem reddish, also long and wavy, young 
shoots slightly tomentose, tinged with red. Bunch long and 
heavy, shouldered, often double, or the shoulder as long as the 
main bunch, stem short and strong, brown, compact. Berry 
medium, round, black with blue bloom, and a peculiar star- 
like dot in the center, but often intermingled with small shriv- 



154 f;RAPE CULTURE AND 

eled bsrries, ripening unevenly, very juicy, with a lively acid 
mingling with the sweet; skin thin. 

The vine is very productive, easy of cultivation, often pro- 
ducing a second and even a third crop from the laterals. Well 
adapted to short stool pruning, and 3 to 4 feet stakes. 

Maiaro, Synonyms, Mourvedre, Catalan, Balzac, Upright 
Burgundy. I put this grape here, not because of its high 
quality, but because it forms a basis, and often a wholesome 
addition to many French clarets, and may become useful as 
a blend with Zinfandel and others, as it ferments easily, its 
wine is said to be very healthy, and improves with age. Other- 
wise it rather produces quantity than quality. 

Vine a strong and very upright grower, wood brown, but 
with gray bloom. Leaf thick and heavy, medium size, dark 
green above, light green below, tomentose or woolly. Young 
shoots whitish gray, with many strong tendrils. Bunch large 
and heavy, shouldered, stem very thick and woody. Berry 
rather small, round, black, with blue bloom, rather dry, with 
abundance of tannin, but not much color. One of the most 
productive and easily cultivated vines, and useful in a vine- 
yard of red varieties in many respects. Ripens late, middle 
of October. 

Refosco, Synonym Crabbs Black Burgundy, Petit Pinot. 
This may not be its true name, it may be Pinot Noir, but it 
is known best by the second name. It is a very productive va- 
riety, bearing well with short pruning, and makes a very deep 
colored wine, which is of high character, though perhaps lack- 
ing sprightliness, which can be remedied by blending with 
more sprightly varieties. 

Vine a moderate, but very symmetrical and upright grower, 
with grayish brown, short jointed wood. Leaf rather small, 
heart shaped, seldom lobed ; dark green above, whitish green 
beneath, young points whitish, tinged with red. Bunch small 
but compact, some times shouldered, with short stems ; cy- 



WINK-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 155 

lindrical, berry small, slightly oblong, black with blue bloom, 
moderately juicy, sweet, rather thick skin. Ripens about 
first of October. 

Gamay Teinturier, Synonym Gamay McGuey. This is a very 
productive variety, though a moderate grower, and as its juice 
is red, is no doubt valuable as a grape for coloring, also makes 
a very sprightly and finely flavored wine by itself, of the true 
claret type. 

Vine a rather slow grower, with close jointed, dark colored 
wood. Leaf medium, heart shaped, shining dark green above, 
lighter green below. Leafstems short, reddish. Bunch small 
to medium, compact, cylindrical, sometimes shouldered, with 
short stems. Berry medium, black, oblong, juicy, sprightly 
and high flavored, with purple juice. Colors early, but ought 
to hang until first of October to develop its true quality, it is 
a very abundant bearer, with short pruning. 

Grosse Blaiie, Koelner, Grobhwarze. This variety was 
introduced here by Mr. John Thomann, who brought it from 
Switzerland; and has made quite a name as a valuable variety 
for blending, and on account of its deep color as well as 
abundance of tannin. While I do not consider it a strictly 
choice variety by itself, yet it makes a good neutral wine, 
which is very useful as a blend with Crabbs Black Burgundy, 
and other softer varieties, and therefore very useful in the 
wine cellar. 

A'ine a vigorous but not very stocky grower, wood grayish 
brown, long and thin, close jointed. Leaf thin, deeply lobed, 
purplish green above, whitish green or tomentose below, stem 
long and thin, purplish green, young shoots purplish white. 
Bunch large and cylindrical, sometimes shouldered ; berry, 
large, oblong, black, shining, of pleasant quality for the ta- 
ble, juicy, stem of bunch long, moderately productive. 
Ripens about first of October. Needs rather long pruning. 

Petit Sirrah. This, although of recent introduction. 



156 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

seems to succeed very well here, and fine wines have been 
made from it. It needs somewhat long pruning and high 
stakes to bring out its full bearing qualities. Vine a strong, 
long jointed grower, wood grayish, with brown dots. Leaf 
large, lobed, rough, dark green above, light green and tomen- 
tose beneath, young points greenish white, tomentose. Bunch 
full medium, shouldered, with rather long stem; berry oblong, 
medium size, black with blue bloom, skin rather thick, moder- 
ately juicy, good flavor. Ripens about the first of October. 

Mondeuse, Gros Sirah. This is closely related to the fore- 
going, almost identical in growth and leaf, but a heavier bear- 
er, a more compact bunch and larger berry. Said to make a 
somewhat coarser wine than Petit Sirah, but very valuable for 
blending. Ripens about the same time. 

Carignatie, Synonym Crignane. This variety has proved 
a fine grower and very abundant bearer here ; its young wines 
rank wdth the finest reds I have tasted in the State, but it is 
said to deteriorate with age. If this should be so, and it 
seems to have the same record in France, there are certainly 
ways and means of counteracting this, by judicious blending 
with other varieties. Vine a strong grower, wood yellowish 
brown, with w^hite spots, young shoots green, tomentose, 
tinged with red. Leaf large and thick, nearly heart shaped, 
dark green and shining above, grayish green and tomentose 
beneath, leaf stem thin. Bunch veiy large, moderately com- 
pact, shouldered, stem long ; berry medium, slightly oblong, 
black with blue bloom, thick skin, but sweet and juicy. 
Ripens about first of October. 

Cabernet Sairvignon . This is the highest type of Bordeaux 
claret, but unfortunately it is a shy bearer. Its aroma is so 
peculiar and distinct, however, and at the same time so 
strong, reminding of the frost grape flavor in the Clinton and 
Canada, that a small proi)ortion of it in fermentation will 
give its peculiar character to other varieties rather deficient 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 157 

in flavor but good bearers. How far this can be carried, and 
with what varieties it would make a good blend, remains to 
be tried further. I would suggest the Mataro and Carignans. 

Vine a slender and rather weak grower, wood brown, with 
a grayish cast, leaves light green, deeply lobed, rather small, 
downish beneath, laterals abundant and small, points of 
shoots gray with reddish tinge. Bunch rather small, loose, 
shouldered; berry small, round, black, covered with blue 
bloom, juicy and sweet, but with a peculiar aroma referred 
to above. It is subject to Coulure, and bears small crops 
generally, even with long pruning, but .can hardly be dis- 
pensed with, on account of its high character, w^hich it will 
impart to other varieties in fermentation. 

Cabei-net Frane is closely related to it, but the leaves are 
not so deeply lobed, and the grape of perhaps not quite so 
high a quality, though it seems somewhat more productive. 

Chauche N'oir. Synonyms, Blauer Burgunder, Blauer 
Claevner, Black Pinot, Black Cluster, Black Riesling, Pinot 
Noir, Black Morillion. This is one of the most famous red 
wine grapes of Europe, forming the basis of the most re- 
nowned French and German wines of the Burgundy type. It 
is not a very heavy bearer, however, nor is it very intense in 
color, and I believe that its true province here, is to make a 
fine white wine from its first pressing, and the pom ice after 
the pressing of this to be added to wines of deep color, such 
as Zinfandel, Grosse Blaue, etc., to give bouquet and finesse. 

Vine a strong grower, stocky and heavy, with many branches 
and laterals, close jointed; v.-ood brownish gray, with black 
spots, buds close, 2 to 3 inches, grayish, woolly. Leaves 
medium size, roundish, with 3 to 5 lobes, dark green above, 
lighter green below, tips of young shoots reddish gray, to- 
mentose. Bunch small, sometimes shouldered, compact; 
berry slightly oblong, black, with slight bloom, small, skin 
thick, moderately juicy, fine flavor. Requires age, and long 



158 'illATK <TT/rURE AND 

pruning to produce well, and is seldom a heavy bearer, but 
will make very choice wine. Ripens early, and as it also 
starts early in spring, is susceptible to late frosts. 

Meunier, Synonyms, Millers Burgundy, Muellervebe. Vine 
a strong grower, resembling the foregoing in the shape of the 
leaf, and habit, but the leaf is covered with white bloom, 
like flour, hence its name. The same bloom is prevalent on 
the berry, which makes vine and fruit look like if flour had 
been dusted on them. It makes a fine and delicate red 
wine, and is somewhat more hardy in its bloom than the 
foregoing, though it also needs long pruning to bring a fair 
crop. Ripens early, about loth of September here. 

Portiigieser^ Blauer. Synonymns Moreto. Vine a strong 
grower, with strong, pithy, young canes, which look almost 
flat, wood brown, with darker spots and streaks, young points 
shining light green. Leaf large, thin, deeply lobed, round, 
smooth, dark green above, light green below, shining. Bunch 
medium size to large, compact, sometimes shouldered, short, 
woody .<tem; berry round, medium, blackish blue, with fine 
bloom, some dark rusty spots, skin thin, very juicy and 
sweet, ripens early. It makes a very pleasant, dark red 
wine, without prominent character, and should be blended 
with grapes which contain more tannin and acid, or used for 
Port, for which it is very good. The vine is very productive. 

Trousseau. Synonym, Trussiaux. Vine a strong grower, 
productive with long pruning; Leaf medium, nearly round, 
not lobed, or but slightly, downy below, deep green above. 
Bunch rather small, compact, seldom shouldered, short stem; 
berry below medium, slightly oblong, short stem, ripens early, 
very sweet. Better adapted to Port than for Claret. For the 
first, it is perhaps better than any other variety. 

Tannat Noir. This new variety seems to meet with gen- 
eral favor, being productive, hardy, and making a very fine, 
dark red wine, with a good deal of tannin and character. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 159 

Vine, a good grower, productive. Leaf rather large, rough, 
tomentose, slightly lobed. Bunch medium, shouldered, com- 
pact. Berry oblong, blue, full, medium, ripens late. 

Spanna. Synonyms Nebbiolo, Nebbiolo D'Asti. An Italian 
grape from which some of the most renowned wines of that 
country are made. Wood vigorous, light brown, long jointed; 
leaf large, tomentose, deeply lobed, stalk long. Bunch me- 
dium to large, long, shouldered, loose, long stem; berry 
roundish oblong, violet blue, thick skin, sweet and juicy, 
ripens late. 

There are others that are very promising, but not fully 
tried, and I think it best not to make too long a list. The 
above will give choice enough, and also comprise some of the 
best grapes for Port. Among those for coloring especially, 
and worthy of a trial, I will name Pied de Perdrix, Petit 
Bouschet, Alicanthe Bouschet, St, Macaire, Ploussard. 
Among the varieties which make an excellent wine, but are 
so unproductive that they will not pay for planting, I will 
name the Malbeck, which jiearly always drops its fruit with 
coulure. 

GRAPES FOR THE ^[ARKET AND RAISINS. 

I shall take these together, as some of the best market 
grapes also make good raisins, and vice versa. Nor do I 
ciaim to be so well versed in them, having made the best 
wine grapes my special study. Yet the shipping of grapes to 
market, as well as curing them for raisins, present two very 
important branches of the industry, paying better at this time, 
perhaps, than wine-making. Besides, many have conscien- 
cious scruples against making wine, who yet would" like to 
engage in grape growing, and for these the shipping of grapes 
and raisin-making offer a field which they can enter without a 
twinge of conscience. While I do not share their views, but 
believe in the introduction of pure light wines as the bes 
promoter of true temperance, yet I respect the honest convic- 

11 



160 GRAPE CUl/rUKE AND 

tions of anyone, and feel that their interests are fully entitled 
to consideration in a book dedicated to the promotion of all 
the branches of grape culture. 

The shipping of grapes to Eastern markets has received a new 
impetus since we have better terms and facilities. How to pick 
and pack them, and at what time, we will consider in a special 
chapter, and now simply discuss the best varieties. While 
many may be used for home markets which will not stand an 
Eastern trip, in shipping grapes we must confine ourselves to 
varieties which are attractive in appearance, and have at the 
same time a rather thick, tough skin, so that they will carry 
without bruising. Quality is a secondary consideration, for 
the most high flavored and delicate grapes, if they do not 
carry well, will not bring a paying price in market if they ar- 
rive in bad order. For home use, of course, there are a num- 
ber of varieties of choice quality that will not bear transpor- 
tation. Nearly all our choice wine grapes are also nice for 
the table, often more spicy than those which are adapted for 
transportation. 

That the climate is also all important in the choice of vari- 
eties is self-evident. Some localities will find greater advan- 
tages in raising <?fl';'A' varieties, others in planting the very latest. 
Some of the Santa Cruz mountains shipped grapes fresh from 
the vines as late as Christmas and New Years last year, hav- 
ing had no killing frosts; and they were sold at $2.50 per 
20 R) box in San Francisco at wholesale, certainly a very 
paying business. Vacaville and Pleasant Valley generally ship 
the earliest, and obtain high prices for them. But the early 
varieties and early locations will pay best for home market; 
for shipping East they will come into competition with East- 
ern American varieties. Therefore, for shipping to the East 
we should have either very showy varieties, which find a ready 
sale on account of their size and beauty; or very late keepers 
to follow theii- latest varieties. The southern route now fur- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 161 

nishes facilities for shipping nearly all winter; and thus our 
late varieties could come into the Eastern markets for the 
winter holidays, and would outsell any of their late varieties. 
So much for general rules to guide in selecting varieties for 
this purpose, now to the discussion of the varieties themselves. 

FOR EARLY MARKET. 

The Chasselas Fontainebleau, or Sweet water, is still about 
the earliest variety for that purpose, which bears sufficiently. 
This has been described under varieties for win?. The Early 
Madeliene, synonym Madeliene Angevine, is still a week 
earlier, and of rather better quality, will also carry well ; but 
so far it has been a shy bearer, especially where late frosts pre- 
vail, as it is one of the first to vegetate and bloom. For 
locations free from frost, it would pay to try with long prun- 
ing, when I think it will bear well. I would certainly try it 
at Vacaville and Pleasant Valley. Vine a moderate grower, 
with long jointed, brown wood. Leaf medium, deeply lobed, 
dark green above, tomentose below ; young points reddish, 
woolly, slender. Bunch medium, compact, shouldered. 
Berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent, rather 
thick skin, sweet and juicy. 

The earliest black variety is perhaps the Black Malvasia^ 
so called in this State. It is a much better table and ship- 
ping grape than it is a wine grape, and as it is very productive 
as well as showy, will pay to grow for market to a limited ex- 
tent. It is too well known to need description here, in fact 
has been too largely planted for wine, for which it is not 
adapted, as especially the red wine will deteriorate with age, 
and can only be used for port. If pressed lightly, as soon as 
crushed, the first juice makes a very pleasant light, white wine. 

FOR LATE MARKET. 

The most prominent among these is the Flame Tokay, 
which, on account of its handsome color, magnificent berry 
and bunch and good shipping qualities, is perhaps the most 



162 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

profitable where it succeeds and colors well. This is not 
everywhere the case, however ; it wants a warm and rather 
moist soil, cold locations will not do for it, and yet in the 
most southern locations, it is also apt to sunscald. This can^ 
in a great measure, be prevented by early summer pruning, 
and I shall refer to the subject under that head. 

It was first introduced into the State by Wm. McPherson 
Hill, of Sonoma Co., and I cannot find it in any work on 
Grape Culture I have examined. Vine a strong grower,, 
large in all its proportions, wood, joints and leaves. Wood 
dark brown, straight, with long joints;, leaves dark green, with 
a brownish tinge, slightly lobed; bunch very large, sometimes 
weighing eight to nine pounds, moderately compact, shoul- 
dered ; berry very large, oblong, red, covered with fine lilac 
bloom, fleshy and crackling, firm ; ripens late. The clip- 
pings of small and imperfect berries, cut out when packing,, 
w^ill make a very agreeable white wine, with pleasant acid and 
good bouquet, and can thus be utilized to good advantage. 

Black Dafnasciis. Synonym Blauer Damascener Zwetsch- 
gentraube, Ribier. Vine a medium grower, wood light brown, 
striped with darker brown, short jointed. Leaf round, five 
lobed, smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath, stem 
reddish ; bunch large, loose, shouldered ; stem large and 
long, woody ; berry very large, oblong, dark blue, covered 
with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late. 

Ejnperor. Vine a strong grower and rather a shy bearer, 
better adapted to Southern than Northern culture, as it ripens 
very late. Wood long jointed, brown, half rough and large ,^ 
deeply lobed. Bunch long and loose, shouldered, very large; 
berry oblong, purplish black, covered with lighter bloom, 
thick skin, firm. 

Black Cornuchon. Synonym, Cornichon Violett, Eichel- 
traube. Vine a strong but stocky grower, with thick, close 
jointed, brown wood. Leaf large and thick, deeply lobed, dark 



WINE-MAKING IN CAT.IFORNIA. 163 

green above, grayish green and tomentose below, five lobed, 
young shoots light green, with tomentose points. Bunch very 
large, loose, shouldered, with long stems and drooping ; berry 
large, long, dark blue, with lighter dots, fleshy, thick skin, 
very late. 

Rose of Peru. This is a very handsome and productive 
grape, of good quality, but does not carry quite as well as 
some other, vine a strong grower, resembling Mission, with dark 
brown, short jointed wood; leaf deep green above, lighter 
green and tomentose below. Bunch very large, shouldered, 
rather loose; berry round, large, black, with firm and crack- 
ling flesh, ripens rather late. 

Gros Colman. Synonym Dodrelaba. Vine a very strong 
grower, long joints, dark brown wood. Leaf very large and 
thick, more broad than long, slightly lobed, dark green above, 
white and woolly below, young shoots tomentose. Bunch 
heavy, broadly shouldered, rather loose ; berry very large, 
round, black with blue bloom. Ripens very late but evenly, 
and is very productive, but may not carry so well as some 
others. 

Black Morocco. This is used as a shipping grape further 
South, not adapted to the North, where it ripens very late and 
unevenly. Vine a straggling, drooping grower, with numerous 
laterals, which generally bring an abundance of second crop, 
leaf thin, deeply lobed, and serrated, dark green and shining. 
Bunch very large, rather compact, heavily shouldered; berry 
very large, black, fleshy, of rather poor quality. 

Muscat of Alexa?idria. Synonym Moscatel Gordo Blanco, 
weiser Muscat, Damascener, etc. It is yet a disputed point 
in this State, w^hether Muscat of Alexandria or Muscatel 
•Gordo Blanco are the same. In the books on grape culture 
they are called identical, and I can see no difference here. 
While this is the leading raisin grape, here and abroad, it is 
also a very important shipping grape, as it carries well, looks 



164 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

well, and many admire its peculiar flavor. It can also be 
utilized to make the well known sweet Angelica wine, or 
rather Cordial, for which the clippings of small berries could, 
be used when packing and making raisins. Vine a short, 
rather straggling and bushy grower, well adapted to short stool 
pruning, as it forms rather a bush than a vine, wood gray, with 
darker spots, short jointed. Leaf round, five lobed, bright 
green above, lighter green below, young shoots a bright green.. 
The laterals produce a second and even a third crop, and the 
second crop will often ripen to be fit for shipping. Bunch, 
long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, light yellow when 
fully mature, transparent, covered with white bloom, fleshy,. 
with thick skin, very sweet, and a decidedly musky flavor 
liked by many, and disliked by others. 

Malaga^ Synonym, Weisner Damascener, frueher weisser 
Damascener. Vine a strong grower, wood reddish brown, short 
jointed. Leaf medium, leathery, smooth, deeply lobed, light 
shining green above. Bunch very large, loose, shouldered,, 
long, stem long and flexible; berry very large, oval, yellowish, 
green, covered with white bloom, thick skin, fleshy. Ripens- 
rather early and also makes good raisins. 

Verdal. Synonym Cheres, Malvoisie de Sitjo. Vine a 
strong grower, long joints. Leaf large, deeply lobed, tomentose;, 
bunch short, heavily shouldered. Berry oblong, yellowish 
green covered with fine bloom, ripens late, very productive.. 

White Cornichon. Synonym Cornichon blanc, weisseEich- 
eltraube. Vine a strong but short jointed, stocky grower, light 
brown with darker buds. Leaf long, thin, deeply lobed, light 
green above, tomentose below. Bunch very large, loose, with 
long drooping shoulders. Berry oblong, golden yellow, with 
light dots, thick skin, fleshy and transparent, ripens late. 

The Sultana has been described among the wine grapes^ 
It makes very fine seedless raisins, but they do not seem tO' 
sell as well as the Muscatel, very likely on account of their 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 165 

small size. The white and black Corinth, from which the 
Zante Currants are made, do no seem reliable here, and so 
far have not proved profitable. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



CULTIVATION AND TREATMENT DURING THE FIRST AND SECOND 
SUMMER. 

After the vineyard has been planted, it should be kept well 
cultivated, the surface kept loose and mellow by frequent stir- 
ring with plow, cultivator and harrow; it is the only method 
by which moisture can be kept up, and the vines can live 
and grow freely. If the soil has been well and deeply prepared, 
it will need no deep plowing the first summer, unless late 
rains have hardened it down after planting. It is generally 
sufficient in all ordinary soils to run a two horse sulky culti- 
vator, in which the shares are so arranged that the two mid- 
dle ones take one side of the row each, while the horses also 
walk one on each side of the row, (or straddle it, as the com- 
mon expression is). If the operator is careful, he can come 
very close to the vines, and by setting the shares or shovels 
so that they will throw the ground slightly towards the vines, 
they will get loose earth around them. Should the ground 
have become hardened, one of the numerous vineyard gang 
plows will have to be run through the row, or if this is not 
available, a one horse plow can be used, though this is much 
slower work. One of the most convenient gang plows for 
vineyard work is (Fig. 12.) manufactured by H. Hortop, Ruth- 



166 



(rRAPE CULTURE AND 




Fig. 12. 
erford, Napa Co., who is a good mechanic, and living in the 
midst of the main wine-growing district, has had a chance to 
study the wants of the wine growers. It has two shares, and 
in fair soil can be drawn by one good pair of horses. The 
shares used, Oliver No. 8, can be taken off and used for sin- 
gle plow. The plow is calculated to finish four furrows in 
a round, going up on one side of the row, throwing the ground 
to the middle, and returning on the other side in plowing 
from the vines. The wheel in front regulates the depth. 
By plowing one furrow with single plow close to the vines 
the row is finished. In plowing to the vines the single plow, 
or one horse plow, is used first, throwing the ground to the 
vines, and one round with the gang plow, going up on the 
right hand side and returning on the same row will finish it. 
Fig. 13 is a plow for deep tillage, made by the same par- 
ty, for breaking ground for vineyards. It is very strong, will 
stand the draugjht of six horses and mules, and calculated to 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFOrvNIA. 



167 



run sixteen to eighteen inches deep. Where the soil is not 
too tenacious, this will be found to save time and labor. 




Fk^. i: 




Fio. 14 



168 GRAPE CUI/rURE AND 

(Fig. 14). Cultivator for two horses, to follow the plow in 
later cultivation, also made by the same party. The shares 
with small mouldboards at the sides work like small plows, 
throwing the ground to the vines, can be changed ad libitum 
for the longer pointed shares, also for a weed cutter blade, to 
be attached to the shanks behind, to extend all the way 
across, with three cultivator shares in front of it to loosen the 
soil. This is very useful for late cultivation, especially where 
the morning glory, that pest of California vineyards, prevails. 

Either the harrow or the clod crusher should follow the 
. plow or cultivator if the ground is at all lumpy, to break the 
clods and make a mellow and even surface. The later this is 
kept up in summer the better will be the growth on the vines; 
they w.ill grow all the better if cultivated all summer, and 
they will pay well for liberal treatment by early and abundant 
crops. 

If resistant vines have been planted, to be grafted when 
strong enough, they will need no pruning the following winter, 
as it will be just as well, and make them stockier and stronger, 
to let them grow unchecked. They will also need no stakes, 
as vines which are not irrigated, make but a small growth the 
first summer, until the roots have become firmly established. 
If viniferas have been planted, however, or resistant vines for 
direct production, such as Herbemont, Rulander, and Le- 
noir, the young vine may be cut - back to two buds of its last 
summer's growth, and should also have a stake for future 
training. Where redwood is available, that is the best and 
cheapest, as it works easy, and is very durable. The length 
of the stake to be used will depend on the variety planted. 
For Zinfandel, Green Hungarian, Mataro and other varieties 
adapted to stool or short pruning, (which some call goblet 
pruning) a stake of four feet is amply high enough, and this 
can generally be removed the fifth or sixth year, as the vine 
will support itself then. For varieties requiring long pruning 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 169 

five and even six foot stakes are necessary, and will be found 
most economical in the end, as the vines will pay for the ad- 
ditional cost of the stakes in their first seasons bearing. The 
comparative price of the stakes is here about as follows, at the 
lumber-yards : 

4 foot stakes, saAved, \\ inch diameter, per 1000 $16 00 

o '' " " U " " '' " 23 00 

6 " '' " 2 '' " " " 34 00 

If we also count in the additional cost in hauling and hand- 
ling, w^e will have about 2 ^/^ cents more, for 6 feet than 4 feet 
stakes. Two pounds of choice grapes additional the first 
season, will pay for this, and square the account, with the 
additional product every season, which at a low calculation 
will be 5II:) per annum in favor of the longer stakes. 

Drive the stakes on the side of the vines from which you 
have your prevailing winds in summer. Of course they should 
be pointed, and can then be driven with a sledge hammer or 
wooden maul, when the ground is soft in winter. They 
should be in the ground from 15 to 18 inches, so that a six 
foot stake w^ould stand about 4^ feet above the ground. If 
the vines have made but little growth, the staking may be 
postponed until the second year, and the young vine tied to 
the marker the second summer. The best material for tieing 
in summer are the leaves of the Phormium tenax, or New 
Zealand flax, which can be torn into strips, and are very flex-: 
ible and strong. The leaves of the common Dracena (Dra- 
cena Draco) or Dragon tree, answer about equally well. In 
fact, all the Dracenas and Yuccas furnish excellent tying ma- 
terial, better than the common grape twine now in use, and 
not near so expensive. Every vineyardist should plant some 
of these, especially of the Phormium, which is gratuitously 
distributed by our State University. They are all fine orna- 
mental plants, and only the dead or dying leaves need be used. 

The second summer, our first operation must be the plow- 



170 grapp: culture and 

ing. Some of the vineyard gang plows, described before, are 
available, they can be used for the work in the centre of the 
rows, setting the share on each side so that they will 
throw the ground together in the centre, and away from the 
vines. If only a common two horse plow can be used, com- 
mence by plowing a furrow exactly in the centre of the row, 
then in returning, throw the next furrow against it, and from 
the row. Go down on the other side, throwing the furrow on 
the first, and away from the row. Then finish up with a one 
horse plow, in the same manner, as close as you can come 
without injuring the vine, letting the horse walk in the furrow 
plowed before. This will leave but a narrow strip of, say six 
inches, which can easily be finished with hoe or spade. The 
two pronged German hoes or karsts are a good implement for 
that purpose. Even where the gang plow has been used, it 
will always be well to finish with the one horse plow, as it 
admits of closer and more careful work. The plowing in the 
centre can vary from 4 to 6 inches in depth, according to the 
nature of the soil. Close to the vines, 3 or 4 inches will be 
sufficient ; and the hoeing or spading should not be deeper 
than to break the hard crust around the vine, caused by the 
winter rains, not deep enough to injure the roots. 

Follow the plow with a vineyard harrow, of which a six foot 
Acme pulverizer is one of the best, or a revolving harrow, 
which will smooth and pulverize, and destroy the weeds at 
the same time. These operations should be performed as 
soon as it is dry enough in early spring, so that the ground 
will work well. We often have a spell of good weather in 
winter, which may be taken advantage of. Always try to be 
ahead with your work, drive //, when you can, so that it will 
have no chance to drive you. Plowing in winter, however, 
should always be done parallel with the hillside, if on sloping 
ground, as, if plowed up and down hill, the spring rains are apt 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 171 

to make deep washes, where they have the furrows as so many- 
gutters. 

When this plowing, hoeing and harrowing is done, we can 
cross plow, that is, if the first plowing has been done from 
East to West, we now plow North and South. Here we re- 
verse the operation, take the one horse plow first and throw 
the ground against the vines; taking care, however, not to 
cover them. Then we follow with the two horse plow, or 
gang plow, and finish out the middle, so that every inch of 
soil in the vineyard is stirred when this is done. This will 
put the soil in good, mellow condition, and the finishing is 
given by taking the clod crusher or drag crossway over the 
rows, which breaks all lumps, and fills up the middle furrow 
somewhat, leaving our vines, when these operations are com- 
pleted, in a bed of mellow earth, where they can grow and 
flourish. The young weeds and vegetation turned under serve 
as fertilizers, and at the same time have a tendency to loosen 
the soil. Cultivating from time to time, as the weeds may begin 
to grow, and the soil requires stirring, as well as cutting down 
the wTeds which may grow around the vines with a light hoe 
where the cultivator cannot reach them, will finish the culti- 
vation for the summer. I reiterate again, if you have the 
time, cultivate freely ; you can not overdo this. Your 
vines will well repay any extra trouble you may take with 
them, by additional growth and fruitfulness. 



172 GRAPE CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CULTIVATION, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE THIRD AND 
FOURTH YEAR. 

The cultivation will be essentially the same, although, as 
the vines increase in size, we cannot come so close to them 
with the plow, and therefore must hoe somewhat more. But 
as pruning and tying in larger vines must be done before cul- 
tivating, we will consider this principally, following up with 
summer pruning or pinching, and tying the young growth in 
summer. 

STOOL OR SPUR PRUNING (goblet pruning). 

We have many varieties for which this is a very convenient 
and easy way of training, and which wtU with this mode of 
treatment, the simplest of all, produce abundant crops. 

VARIETIES ADAPTED TO THIS TRAINING. 

Marsatine, Green Hungarian, Clairette Blanche, Victoria 
Chasselas, Burger, Folk Blanche, Palomino, Zinfandel, Ma- 
taro, Refosco, Gamay Teinturier, Blauer Portugieser, Flame 
Tokay, Gros Colman, Muscat of Alexandria, White Cor- 
nuchon, and of the old varieties. Mission and Malvasia. Of 
course, there may be many others, but my experience does 
not warrant me in recommending them for this treatment. 
Four foot stakes will be sufficient for them, and they can be 
put in in most cases when the vines are pruned. 

The proper time for pruning is when the leaves have dropped 
in fall, and all during the winter months, as our winters are 
not severe enough to damage the wood or buds. The sooner 
we commence with it the sooner our vineyards will be ready 
for the plow. Some defer it until late, as a preventative 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



173 



against late frosts, but I hope to show my readers a better 
method under that heading. 

We will suppose our young vine to have at least one good 
stocky cane of three to five feet long. This we cut back to 
two feet, about half an inch above a bud, making a slanting 
or vertical cut above the bud. (Fig. 15) shows the vine, 




Fig. 15. Fig. 16. 

the cross line indicating where to prune. (Fig. 16) shows it 
pruned, staked and tied. For the upper tying I have found 
annealed wire No. 16 the best, most convenient, and cheap- 
est material. It can be used several years, is easily applied, 
quicker than any other, as the wire is cut to the desired 
length with a cold chisel^ tied in convenient bundles, and the 
tw^o ends are simply hooked into each other by a quick twist 
with the fingers. It is just as easily taken off, pulled straight, 
and used another year; and costs ten and one-half cents per 
pound. Care must be taken not to apply it too tight, so as 
to allow for the grow^th and expansion of the vine, as it will 
cut into the wood and bark if drawn tight. This will not 
break through thelchafing of the vines in strong winds against 
the stakes, and is much cheaper than grape twine and better. 
Ahvays tie just below the upper bud, so as to keep the vine 
firmly to its place. If tied lower, the growth above the tie 
will cause the vine to lose its balance and lop over, there- 
by making an ugly bend, where it is apt to break off. For 



174 (JRAPE CULTURE AND 

the lower tie either the Phormium tenax, Drcena leaves, or 
the golden willow, (Salix Aurea), can be used, of which each 
grape grower ought to make a plantation along the ravines 
and gullies, w^here they will not take up any room, and can 
be cut every year; the young twigs are very soft and pliable. 
The silver leaved willow, growing wild on many of our streams, 
is equally tough and serviceable. For want of cheaper and 
better material, use grape twine. Wire is not advisable for the 
lower tying, as it will cut into the vines. The young resistant 
vines, if they have attained a diameter of from half an inch 
to three quarters, should also be grafted, as described before, 
in the chapter on grafting. April and May will be found the 
best time to do this. 

When the vines have been pruned and tied as indicated 
above, they will bring their strongest shoots or branches from 
the upper buds. Of these, two or three of the strongest 
should be left, to form the future head or stool ; if the vine is 
rather weak, leave but two ; if stronger, three, all the rest 
which may appear from the lower buds, should be rubbed oif. 
It will be found advantageous to pinch off the tops of the re- 
maining, when they have grown about a foot ; they will then 
throw out laterals, and become more stocky and bushy; espe- 
cially is this advisable in windy locations, as the winds have 
less power on many shorter shoots, than on a few long ones. 
Besides it shades the vine and the fruit, and prevents sun- 
scalds ; as the laterals always come from the axils of the 
leaves opposite the bunch and thus shade it. But do not fol- 
low late summer pruning, lopping off the woody shoots with 
knife or side, which is unfortunately practiced too much. It 
is barbarous to the vine, causing the cane to die back, and 
the fruit to ripen unevenly. The sooner summer pruning can 
be done, the more beneficial it is to the vine ; and besides, it 
is done so much more rapidly and easy. In half a minute a 
man (or woman either) can go over a large vine in May or 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



175 



June, at the same time rubbing out all barren and superfluous 
shoots (suckering). When the foliage is once fully developed, 
it is much more difficult to look through the vine and do the 
proper thinning, besides the first will develop so much more 
evenly and perfectly. In fact, winter and spring pruning are 
but the beginning of the training ; if not followed by judicious 
summer pruning and thinning, it is incomplete. The fourth 
winter or spring vve find our vine with two or three strong 
shoots from the upper buds, presenting a miniature tree or 
bush. These we cut back again to three buds each as shown 
in Fig 17 at the cross lines, and tied to the stake, as in Fig. 18. 




Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 



We call these spurs, and from each of these spurs we expect at 
least two strong shoots, from the two upper buds on each. As 
the buds on the vine grow in triplets, the main or fruit bud in 
the centre, with two smaller buds, one on each side, it is often 
the case that two of them or even all three will start and grow. 
Only one, and this the strongest, should be left from each bud, 
all others rubbed off, nor should more than two be left to each 
spur, so that we double the amount of shoots or canes we had 
the second summer. Summer prune as the summer before, 
first thinning out the superfluous shoots, by rubbing or pull- 
ing them out at their base, and then pinch the remainder. 

12 




176 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

The fifth year, we double again, as shown in Fig. 19, which 

will give us four to six spurs, according 11 

to the strength of the vine, which, for 

very heavy bearers and in ordinary soil, 

will be about enough. If the vine is very 

vigorous, and the soil strong, however, 

we can keep on increasing the number of 

spurs even to twelve ; this must be left to 

the discretion of the intelligent vintner, "^^^^^^^^ 

* ' Fig. 19. 

as it is impossible to give any fixed rule as to number of buds 
to be left. In fact, the health and vigor of the vine depend 
largely on pruning according to individual strength. As long 
as a vine makes a vigorous, well ripened growth of wood, 
ripens its fruit evenly and well, developing the full amount of 
sugar, it has not been overloaded. But when the growth 
decreases, the berries and bunches become smaller, and ripen 
unevenly, it has been overtaxed, and should be pruned 
shorter. If, on the contrary, the vegetation is too rank, the 
berries abnormally large, it shows that it was not pruned long 
enough, and it will suffer easier from coulure and mildew, its 
wood will not ripen so well, nor be so fruitful. The results 
of the vintners labors depend largely on his nice discrimina- 
tion in pruning and summer pruning. A man who is not, to 
a large extent, able to judge the capacity of a vine when he 
looks at it, is not fit to prune it, and will do more harm than 
good in a vineyard. My rule is, to prune full as long as I 
think the vine is able to bear, should it show more fruit than 
I think it is well able to bear, I thin with an unsparing hand 
in summer pruning. It is always easier to rub off a superflu- 
ous shoot or bunch, than to add one when they are "not 
there." But do not let greed, or the desire of an . immense 
crop, stay your hand, when you know that your vines have 
-too much. Thin out evenly, or your crop will be poor next 
year and the following, vines will feel and resent such abuse. 



WINE- MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. ] 77 

If you want a sound man, able to do his faithful days' work 
every day when mature, do not overtax the boy, willing as 
he may be. Just so with the vine. This will apply to all 
modes of training and culture. 

When we have fully developed our vine, say the sixth year, 
and think it has as many spurs as it is able to bear well, we 
prune back, that is, where two shoots have grown on a spur, 
equally strong or nearly so, we cut out the upper just above 
the lower, pruning this to three buds again, and thus we ob- 
tain the same number of spurs as the year before. The reason 
why we cut out the upper is, that we want to avoid elonga- 
tion, but keep the vine at nearly the same dimensions, which 
we could not do, if we left the upper, and cutaway the lower. 
As far as possible always prune to an outside bud, i, e. one 
pointing from the center of the vine, as we want to keep the 
head as open as possible. The rank shoots from the old 
wood, watersprouts or suckers as they are generally called, 
should be all removed in summer pruning, unless they may 
be needed to take the place of a failing spur or arm. This 
completes stool or goblet pruning. After the fourth year, the 
vines are generally long enough to support themselves, and 
the stakes may be dispensed with, to be used somewhere else. 

MEDIUM OR "HALF LONG" PRUNING. 

We have many varieties not well adapted to stool or spur 
training, which will produce well with a medium course. 
Some varieties are so constituted, that they will not fruit well 
from the first two or three buds at the base of the cane, while 
they will produce abundantly from the fourth to tenth bud, 
and some of our most valuable varieties belong to that class. 

Varieties adapted for this treatment. Pedro Ximenes, 
(generally known in this State as Sauvignon Vert or Colombar) 
Chaceda Oris, Simillion, Traminer, Muscadelle de Bordelais, 
Chasselas Fontainebleau (Gutedel) Chasselas Violette, White 
Elben, Blaue Elben, White Muscateller, Grosse Blaue, Mon- 



178 



(4RAPE CULTITRE AND 



dense, Carignan, Meunier,^ Tannat, Pied de Perdrix, Petit 
Bouschet, Rulander (American). 

For these I would recommend five foot stakes, We com- 
mence the third year, by leaving one cane, a foot to eighteen 
inches long, (15 will be about a medium), pruning and tying; 
precisely as for stool pruning. We leave three canes or shoots 
to grow from the three upper buds, which will give us some- 
thing like a goblet shape to commence with, and summer 
prune as in stool pruning, not quite so short however, leaving 
at least eighteen inches of the young growth. Near winter 
or spring we cut the three canes obtained to about 15 to iS 
inches, and tie to the stake as in (Fig. 20), making the upper 
tie with wire, the lower, which is only drawn around to keep 
the canes from spreading, with Phormium, D-racena leaves or 
or twine. The shoots from these are pinched as in stool 
pruning, but one shoot from the base of each cane, left un- 
pinched, to develop fully ; as from it we expect our cane for 
next season's bearing. These three canes will each bear some 
fruit, if strong enough, but should not be overloaded. Here 




Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



WINE-MAKINf4 IN CALIFORNIA. 



179 



again the discrimination of the vintner is needed, and proper 
thinning, if necessary, must be resorted to. 

The fourth winter, the old canes which have borne fruit 
last summer, are cut out, and replaced by the young canes 
from the base which were left unpinched, always leaving a 
spur, however, of say two buds, from the lowest branch of 
the old cane. (P'ig 21) shows the vine pruned and tied. As 
the vine has become stronger, the canes can be left longer, 
say too feet, provided the vine can bear it, and summer prun- 
ing followed as before, with the alteration that we leave the 
■canes for next season's bearing on the spurs at the base of the 
<:anes. This system is followed up, and is simply a renewal 
training, the cane from the spur taking the place of the cane 
■or arm which has borne last season's fruit. 

A modification of this treatment is sometimes followed 
with very good results, and makes the vine self supporting. 
Four canes are grown instead of three, and bent together at 
the top, so as to make a globe or balloon. A wire is firmly 
tied around them, and if the canes are equal in strength and 
equally loaded, the fruit hangs mostly in the middle of the 
jlobe. This method, (Fig. 22) has some advantages and some 
disadvantages. The circular form 
in which the canes are bent, dis- 
tributes the sap more evenly, while 
with the other method, it runs more 
into the upper buds on canes and 
spurs. Its disadvantages are, that 
it takes more room in the vineyard, 
does not allow as close working, 
and unless the canes are of very 
even size, they will not balance 
well, when heavy with fruit, but 
pull to one side. We want economy 
y , ,,.-, in our work, especially in cultiva- 

tion, and this interferes with it somewhat. 




180 (iRAPE CULTURE AND 

Long Pruning and Training. 

We have some varieties which are shy bearers even with 
this last mode of training, and which require still longer 
pruning to produce paying crops, yet are so valuable that we 
cannot well dispense with them. For these, I recommend 
another variation, which I have practiced with splendid re- 
sults, especially on y-Estivalis varieties, Herbemont, Lenoir, etc. 

Varieties adapted to this treatment. Sultana, Riesling, 
Franken Riesling, Yellow Hosier, Petit Syrah, Cabernet 
Sauvignon, Cabernet Frane, Chauche Noir, Trusseau, Em- 
peror, Herbemont, Lenoir, Nortons. It is simply a modifi- 
cation of medium pruning, as described before. The vine is 
treated the same way the third year, but for this method, six 
foot stakes are needed, and the three canes, started at about 
12 to 14 inches from the ground, are left somewhat longer. 
The fourth season, instead of cutting out the bearing canes 
of last year, I leave these for permanent arms, to last as long 
as they are healthy aud sound. I cut all the strong, vigor- 
ous shoots they may have, which have fully developed fruit 
buds, to spurs of three to four buds each, up to two feet and 
a half of the crown or head of the vine. This will give say 
three to three and a half feet. From here, I have a short 
cane on each arm, to reach to the top of the stake, and tie 
firmly with wire, with a strong tie of Phormium or twine 
around the middle, to hold them to the stake, and prevent 
their spreading. The next pruning, I leave the old arms, and' 
from each of the spurs I select the strongest, as near the 
base as possible, pruning it to three or four buds; so that for 
each spur of the summer before, I have another, cutting out 
the balance. The young cane at the end of each arm, I 
either replace with another, or leave it, and cut its laterals 
also to spurs. 

All varieties I have handled have produced satisfactory 
crops under this treatment, except the Malbeck; which al- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. ■ 181 

ways suffered from coulure to such an extent that I do not 
think it will pay with any manner of training, and ought to 
be discarded. Nor do I think we need it, with all the fine 
varieties now at our command. There are, of course, many 
other modes of training in vogue in France, Germany, and all 
Europe, as well as the trellis method adopted in the Eastern 
States, which I have followed and advocated there for many 
years. But the trouble with most of them is, that they offer 
serious obstacles to cultivating both ways, and as labor is 
high, we must do all we "can with plow and cultivator, which 
not alone saves manual labor, but offers better cultivation 
than we can perform by hand. No hoe or spade will so thor- 
oughly pulverize and mellow the soil as the plow, clod crush- 
er, and harrow, where they can be used both ways. For this 
reason I am slow in following or recommending any method 
of training which will only allow cultivation one way; and the 
advantages it offers must be great indeed to induce me to 
adopt it. 

THE CHAINTRE SYSTEM. 

This is one of the systems which would prevent cultivation 
both ways, but is much recommended by French authorities, 
as very much increasing the product per acre, and necessitat- 
ing only about three hundred and twenty-five vines to the 
acre, instead of three thousand, as they are generally planted 
there. It was Denis Lusseaudeau, at Chissay, France, who 
first invented and tried it, and it is enshusiastically spoken of 
and explained in a pamphlet with numerous illustrations by 
A. Vias, which was translated into English for the State Board 
of viticulture, and published among their transactions. Any 
one who wishes full information about it can obtain it from 
the Secretary, Mr. Clarence J. Wetmore, who has tried it 
himself, and thinks it well adapted to such varieties as are 
shy bearers and much subject to coulure. The vines are 
pruned in a peculiar manner, and bent over as the name im- 



182 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

plies, in a trailing chain, pruning very long, as the rows are 
planted in France twenty feet apart, and the vines six and a 
half feet in the rows. For cultivation the whole vine is turned 
around, laid over on the row, and when the ground has been 
plowed the vines are turned back again, and supported by 
small stakes over the empty space, so that the young growth 
is a foot from the ground. They also claim better and more 
even ripening, as well as a greater amount of sugar, for this 
method. Mr. Wetniore would only recommend it for shy 
bearers, and especially in windy locations. Others who have 
tried it do not think so favorably of it. The pamphlet issued 
with the second annual report will explain the method fully. 
I have not tried it for the reasons given above. 



CHAPTER XV. 



DISEASES OF THE VINE AND THEIR REMEDIES. 

Fortunately, the vine is subject to but very few diseases 
here, as that terrible scourge of the Eastern and European 
vineyards, the Peronospora Viticola, or Mildew par excellence, 
has not troubled us here, and I do not think it ever will, as 
long as our summers remain as dry, and our atmosphere as 
pure as they are now. The Peronospora generally makes its 
appearance in the East after continued rains, and murky, sul- 
try weather, and then often destroys two-thirds of a crop in a 
few days, an atmospheric condition which I have not as yet 
observed here. The Oidium Tuckeri, or powdery mildew, 
generally appears after heavy fogs, followed by dry, still weath- 
er during the middle of the day, and yields readily to the ap- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 183 

plication of sulphur, which does not stop the Peronospora, 
for which the remedy is sulphated copper and slacked lime. 
Let us hope that it may never trouble us, and pass it by. 

Our Chief Viticultural Officer, Mr. John H. Wheeler, has 
recently published a very practical treatise on the "Oidium 
Tuckeri and the use of Sulphur;" which covers the ground so 
completely, that I take the liberty of republishing it here almost 
entire, and am sure that those of my readers who will study 
and follow it closely, will have little to fear from the disease. 
I have generally found one application sufficient, either at or 
shortly after the bloom, but the vines should be watched later 
on, even until the berries color, and if the spotted leaves and 
the grayish color which the fruit assumes, are observed, a 
second application is necessary. To the varieties subject to 
it outside of those mentioned by Mr. Wheeler, I will add the 
Mataro, and Marsanne. Generally speaking, all very rank 
growers are more subject to it than the medium or slow grow- 
ers, while the .Estivalis class is entirely exempt from its at- 
tacks. Sulphuring is also a partial remedy against coiiliire, or 
dropping of the bloom or berry, (imperfect setting or fructifi- 
cation) of which I shall treat further on. 



OIDIUM (TUCKERI) AND THE USE OF SULPHUR. 

OIDIUM."^- 

The oidium (tuckeri) is a vegetable parasite of American 
origin. It attacks all growing portions of the vine and imparts 
to the leaves a chapped appearance, and gives them a whitish 
or gray color. The vine, when badly affected, has a blighted 
and sickly appearance ; the young leaves and tender parts be- 



*Frequently and improperly confused with mildow, which it is not. The 
true mildiou is the dreaded Perono-pura Vlticola, a parasite far more formidable 
than the disease we commonly treat with sulphur and one which does not suc- 
cumb to this or other simple remedies. 

The misnomer of the parasite common to California frequently leads to a con- 
fusion of remedies— sulphate of copper and slacked lime is the remedy for 
mildiou— hni one not necessary for our oidium. 



184 grapp: culture and 

come dried and roll up, attacked, the herbaceous parts 
blacken, cease to grow, and end by withering and drying up. 
This latter extreme is rarely attained in California. The 
growing berries are attacked as readily as other parts, giving 
the whole a languishing and unhealthy aspect. The young 
branches also present blotches of a powdered nature which 
ultimately cover the greater part of the surface exposed to the 
sun, and where badly affected also taking on a whitish, pow- 
dered and eventually chapped appearance, which causes them 
to crack open and cease to grow. Thus it will be seen that the 
oidium, unlike other fungus, affects the crop directly as well 
as indirectly through damage to the foliage. The parasite 
first appears abundant in June, though frequently commencing 
its attack in May, at or after the time of flowering. 

The conditions favoring the oidium are moisture and 
warmth, the latter playing the most important part. The 
moisture here meant is not the extremely humid condition of 
the atmosphere which appears with or immediately follows a 
rain or heavy fog continue, a condition often incorrectly named 
as favorable to oidium, but merely the moisture to be found 
in sea breeze after it has traveled ten, twenty or even thirty 
miles inland. An atmosphere which produces a light dew at 
night is sufficiently moist to favor to the utmost the propagation 
of oidium. Quite different in this respect is i\\Q pero?iospora 
and Antliracnose which require the deposition of heavy rain, 
fog or excessive moisture to produce their growth. For this 
reason, I believe, California has been comparatively free from 
the true Mildioii, a disease which of late years in France, 
where summer rains are frequent, has threatened the vine- 
yards to as great an extent as has the dreaded phylloxera. 

Our principal vegetable parasite thus far has been the oidi- 
um, one especially favored by our dry, warm climate, and one 
easily destroyed by the timely application of sulphur. 

As before remarked, excessive moisture is unfavorable 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 185 

the propagation of oidium, and a good shower will do much 
to remove and destroy the germs. 

As to temperature, the disease begins its development 
where the average of day and night runs up to 53^ F.; it 
spreads rapidly at 70° F., and is checked in its growth where 
the thermometer indicates near loo*^ F. Above 100° its 
damage is rapidly diminished, and at iia'^ — a temperature 
quite common throughout the interior vineyard districts of 
California — the germs loose their vitality and the effects of 
the disease entirely cease. 

To be sure, where vines make a dense growth and are 
trained high above the ground, the germs may be so sheltered 
in shady spots as to escape the effects of the heat. Where, 
on the contrary, the vines are trained along or close to the 
ground and receive the reverberated in addition to the direct 
heat of the sun, the manner in which vines should be trained 
— then, the high temperature above named accomplishes a 
complete extermination of the parasite, a result which has 
often been noted in Algiers where such temperatures are fre- 
quent throughout the early growing period of the vine. 

Let it be borne in mind generally that the propagation of 
the oidium and other vegetable parasites of the vine are great- 
ly favored by trellises and high training. Short pruned vines 
and those trained close to the ground are most exempt from 
fungoid diseases. 

A hot north wind will sweep the oidium from a vineyard 
well exposed to its effects. This forms one of nature's most 
common remedies in California, and should be a consolation 
to those who may otherwise lose by it in the grain field. 

Some varieties of vines are found more susceptible to the 
attack of oidium than others, other conditions being similar 

This fact should influence the vineyardist as to the fre- 
quency of applying the remedy and the amount of sulphur 
employed . 



186 ■ GRAPE OULTITBE AND 

Varieties particularly subject to the effects of oidium are the 
(Muscat, Chasselas, Zinfandel, FoUe Blanche, Crabb's Black 
Burgundy, Teinturier, Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Caber- 
net Franc, Riesling, Carignane, Terret andCinsaut.) Among 
those little susceptible are the Grenache, all of the true 
Pinots, the Alicante Bouschet, Petit Bouschet, Colombar, 
Sauvignon blanc and the Aramon. The American grapes 
Vitis Labrusca, V. Riparia and V. Rupestris are but little 
affected by oidium. 

REMEDIES. 

Many substances have been applied principally in the form 
of powders — lime has been extensively employed, and it has 
been found that any dust effects beneficial results on the 
diseased plant. None have proved so efficacious, however, as 
sulphur dust, and on this we can rest our perfect reliance, for, 
if properly applied, it affects all that may be desired in the 
way of a cure, and is comparatively inexpensive. The oidium 
is a disease quite easy to treat, because its spores and growth 
are confined to the exterior and exposed portion of the plant, 
which is not the case with the peronospera viticola and some 
other vegetable parasites. 

THE APPLICATION OF SULPHUR AS A REMEDY. 

There have been many conflicting and erroneous state- 
ments made concerning this remedy, its application and 
effects as applied in California. Imperfect and hasty gener- 
alizations, drawn from limited local experiences, have not un- 
frequently been published and results both expensive and 
wasteful have often followed. To correct the wrong impres- 
sions thus formed and save further dispute, it seems neces- 
sary to treat the subject in a somewhat technical manner, the 
truth on some points of which it seems to me precludes the 
possibility of further dispute as to kinds which should be 
employed ; the difference in the effect of- various brands, im- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 187 

ported or domestic, and the manner, and time best for 
making the treatment. 

The vineyards of California consume annually 1,200 tons 
of sulphur, an average of about 15 lbs of sulphur per acre. 
None of this sulphur is the product of California mines or 
deposits as many suppose. For three years previous to 1887 
sulphur sublimers and grinders have been entirely dependent 
on countries other than the United States for their raw mater- 
ial. There has of late years been no sulphur found in Cali- 
fornia which could pay the cost of mining, refining and trans- 
portation to San Francisco, and be sold here at even double 
the present cost of sulphur imported from Sicily or Japan. 

Four years ago California received small quantities of sul- 
phur from Nevada, but the competition of cheap labor in the 
Orient, and cheap transportation by sea soon choked out the 
local industry. Considerable promise comes to the home in- 
dustry now from Utah, where large deposits are being worked, 
and the refined product, ground and sublimed, are being 
placed on the California market at the same figures as the im- 
ported vineyard sulphur ; or that prepared in San Francisco 
from the imported raw material. How long the sulphur 
mines of Utah will continue available to consumers in the 
United States will depend entirely upon railroad freights, 
which have of late been so capricious as to preclude any cer- 
tain future dependence. 

To show the comparative insignificance of our own sulphur 
mines, let it be known that in 1880 there were mined in the 
whole United States 600 tons, while our imports for 1881 
aggregated 105,438 tons. 

This latter quantity came almost exclusively from Sicily. 
Virtually, the Island of Sicily furnishes the world with sul- 
phur, notwithstanding Japan is now her most formidable 
competitor for the Pacific Coast of North America. Sicily 
has for years been the original point of production for the sul- 



188 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

phur used in vineyards the world over, and whether this sul- 
phur sold mostly in commerce as " Sicily seconds" and con- 
taining not to exceed 3/0 ol ash impurities, has gone first to 
Marseilles or Antwerp to be ground or sublimed ; or whether 
it has come to New York or California to be ground or sub- 
limed, has made but one essential difference to California 
vineyardists, viz : All sulphur sublimed without the United 
States pays a duty on entering our posts ©f one cent per 
pound, which sometimes makes an addition of nearly 50% to 
the selling cost. All other brimstone, crude or ground, ex- 
cept in rolls, pays no duty. 

1 desire to draw particular attention to this difference for 
the instruction of those who have with this as with California 
wine in past years, been led to believe, that any goods bearing 
a French label are better than those produced at home. The 
case is a parallel to that by which our wine drinkers were 
long duped by French labels. 

Some may claim that the sulphur ground or sublimed in 
Europe is finer than that prepared in California. To deter- 
mine this I have examined carefully over twenty samples of 
sulphur which I have been collecting and carefully sampling 
for several years past, with the following results : Domestic 
preparations of sublimed sulphur have averaged as fine as 
those from Marseilles or Belgium. Of the ground sulphur, 
that produced in California has generally proved the finer, 
and the finest of all prepared by either method was ground 
sulphur prepared in California. 

So much to the credit of the home industry. I have 
learned direct from the leading importer of foreign prepared 
sulphur that generally the Europeans do not grind as fine as 
is the practice in California ; but that if California markets so 
demand, it may be prepared as fine as needed. This is be- 
cause they expect us to use sublimed sulphur if sulphur in a 
fine condition be needed. They care little about the import 



WINE-MAKIN(i IN CALIFORNIA. 189 

duty of one cent per pound on the latter so long as they are 
reimbursed. Nor is it their business or care whether we use 
one variety and avoid the tax, or the cheaper with equally 
beneficial results. 

The imports of sublimed sulphur to a single merchant in 
this city have cost California vineyardists in the past three 
years nearly $15,000 duty, no benefits of which have accrued 
to our vineyards ; and this, a loss to proprietors, adds another 
conspicuous monument to the long and unwholesome prac- 
tice among some of our people of aping the French in every- 
thing. 

We therefore conclude from the fore2;oin2; that "California 
sulphur" means sulphur from other countries, ground or sub- 
limed only in California ; and that for economy's sake, if any 
one insist on a foreign article, he should buy the ground sulphur 
and thereby escape the duty of one cent per pound. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF GROUND AND SUBLIMED SULPHUR 
FOR VINEVARD USE. 

This much mooted question has been carelessly handled 
by many. First let us comprehend the effect of any sulphur 
distributed in the vineyard. Sulphur, in a fine condition, 
exposed to the atmosphere, undergoes a partial evaporation ; 
the vapor produced comes in contact with the germs or organs 
of the oidium and accomplishes their destruction. Evapora- 
tion is therefore the result desired. This evaporation is par- 
ticularly favored by exposure to the suns heat, and especially 
when the ambiant temperature reaches 70'^ F or over. 

Now, other things being equal, the finer the sulphur rhe 
greater must be the surface exposed and consequently the 
more rapid the evaporation. Evaporation is the result de- 
sired. Sublimed sulphur is that produced by boiling crude 
brimstone and condensing the vapor thus formed in a closed 
chamber. In cooling the vapor the sulphur is recovered in 



190 (;RAPE CULTURE AND 

little round globules. Several of these globules are usually 
attached, and form a string in appearance when magnified, 
much resembling a string of beads. The sulpur in this shape 
exposes less surface than could be produced in any other 
form ; so that with equal fineness, ground and irregular par- 
ticles would better answer our purpose. To demonstrate 
this practically, two samples of the same sulphur accurately de- 
termined in weight, one ground and the other sublimed, were 
exposed to the same heat as if in the vineyard. Samples 
selected for this purpose were of apparent equal fineness. 
The same were weighed from day to day, and the experiment 
repeated several times ; and the above conclusions were am- 
ply born out in every weighing. Not only did the sublimed 
or flowers of sulphur evaporate less ; but it also showed a 
more rapid formation of sulphuric acid than the ground sam- 
ple, thus furnishing another objection to the use of sublimed 
sulphur ; one which its exponents have frequently and incor- 
rectly urged against the use of ground or triturated sulphur. 

I have yet to know of any considerable damage done to 
vines by the sulphuric acid existing as an impurity in the com- 
mercial article, either ground or sublimed ; though some have 
strongly urged the presence of sulphuric acid as an objection 
to ground sulphur. This is wrong, as there is every con- 
dition to favor the formation of sulphuric acid in the operation 
of subliming sulphur, and nothing to favor such formation 
in the grinding process. Specialists who have made this mat- 
ter a thorough study, corroborated my conclusions; 

I do not urge this as an objection to the use of sublimed 
sulphur, but if any disadvantage accrues from the presence of 
sulphuric acid, it must not be laid at the door of the ground 
sulphur. '^'■ 

In connection with this let it be known that neither sublim- 
ing nor grinding does in any wise alter the chemical nature of 

^The presence of considerable qiiantiiies of sulphuric acid may be detected by 
the lumpy condition which results from its presence. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 191 

sulphur, which is an elementary substance and unalterable 
chemically, otherwise than by combining it with some other 
element or compound. It is not changed in its preparation, 
as above named, any more than would be pure lead if made 
into shot by melting or by being cut to the proper shape. The 
same analogy holds true as to its source — pure lead from one 
mine or country is chemically identical with that from any- 
other mine or country. So with sulphur from Sicily, from 
California or any other country. This I state for the benefit 
of non-chemists, some of whom have thought prepared sul- 
phur to be a compound altered from its elementary condi- 
tion and hence variable in strength. 

One point favoring the sublimed sulphur is, that in prepar- 
ing it, the product is freed of the ashy impurity existing in the 
crude article of commerce, to the extent of from one to three 
per cent. This impurity, how^ever, is a neutral volcanic ash, 
which works no injury to the vine, and in buying ground sul- 
phur can only be estimated as a loss of from one to three per 
cent. — a -loss which is in no wise commensurate with the dif- 
ference in price of the two forms, ground and sublimed. 

We find European authorities of the present date unanimous 
in the opinion that finely ground or triturated sulphur is more 
suitable for vineyard use than the sublimed. 

Prof. G. Foex, who is Director and Professor of viticulture 
at the National School of Agriculture at Montpellier, in his 
'' Cours Complet de Viticulture," published in 1886, says: 
"Formerly only sublimed sulphur was employed (in the vine- 
yards) because it contained more sulphurous acid ; but since, 
learning that the effect of the sulphur on the oidium is due to 
the vapor which it emits at an elevated temperature, a result 
obtained as well with ground as with sublimed sulphur, the 
former being considerable cheaper, has come into general use. 
"Furthermore, the use of flowers of sulphur is seriously 
objectionable, in as much as it consists of little globular par- 
13 



192 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

tides which are readily lost from the foliage of the vine under 
the influence of light breeze. Its application affects the 
workmen, too, with a trouble known ^.sop/itahniedes siilfreiirs 
■ — affecting the eyes. 

"The ground sulphur, on the contrary, which is made up 
of angular and irregular particles, adhere more closely to the 
green portions, of the vine and trouble the workmen much 
less." 

M. A. Du Boreuil, M. La Forgue and others express the 
same preference for finely ground sulphur. 

HOW AND WHEN TO APPLY SULPHUR. 

For very "small vineyards, the dredger, an instrument much 
resembling a large pepper box, answers well Enough, especial- 
ly while the vines are young. For more advanced vineyards 
and larger areas, the bellows should be used, holding from 
three to five pounds of sulphur. These latter are furnished by 
local manufacturers and effect a considerable saving of time, 
labor and material over the dredger. By the use of the bel- 
lows, too, the sulphur can be more evenly distributed. A 
simple open nozzle is the best ; any perforated cover for this 
latter is apt to get clogged and the bell-shape frequently given 
to it does not spread or expand the sulphur jet — a purpose for 
which it is designed but fails to accomplish. A bent nozzle 
is more of an encumbrance than an advantage. The simplest, 
strongest bellows of good size will prove cheapest and best in 
the end. With this tool a workman will sulphur from five to 
eight thousand vines per day — vines in an advanced state of 
vegetation. He may apply as many pounds of sulphur per 
day with other instruments, but it can not thus be so evenly 
distributed, nor cover the same area. 

The powdered sulphur should be applied so as to lodge as 
much as possible on and near the growing parts of the vine. 
This secures a dense sulphur vapor in direct contact with the 
diseased organs. Sulphur on the old stump, or even on the 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 193 

surface ot the ground, will destroy the oidium, but a larger 
quantity would be required. 

Sulphur falling on the g'ound is by no means lost, but a 
lesser quantity will answer if lodged on the leaves and 
T^ranches. 1^ has been stated that sulphur falling to the 
earth is lost by its effect being immediately neutralized. The 
sulphurous acid formed is neutralized, but the vapor of sul- 
phur — the active disinfectant is not neutralized, nor is the ef- 
fect of the sulphur lost, except as it be covered up and hid 
from the sun and air. 

The simplest rule as to the time for applying sulphur is: 
" Treat the vineyard whenever the disease makes its appear- 
ance." But if we desire to apprehend even its introduction, 
which is the general custom in California, the first application 
should be made at or about the time of flowering, as at this 
period the disease is apt to attack the delicate organs of fruc- 
tification and render the vine infertile. Altogether the most 
favorable results have been obtained by sulphuring at the time 
of blossoming. This, too, is one of the methods of combat- 
ing coulure^ a trouble which will be treated later on. Young 
Tines do not require so frequent sulphuring nor so great a 
quantity as vines in full bearing. The former should be sul- 
phured when the shoots attain a length of a few inches; and 
again, later on, if the oidium makes its appearance. Bearing 
vines should, in addition to the treatment at blossoming, re- 
ceive a second application from the first to the middle of June, 
and again, later on, if the disease makes its appearance. 

The quantity used at each application may vary with the 
number of vines per acre, and should be governed somewhat 
by the susceptibility of the variety, as before explained. Less 
is needed for the first than for subsequent applications, w^hen 
the vines attain full proportions. The quantity commonly 
used in California for old vines subject to oidium, is about 



194 URAPE CULTURE AND 

eight pounds per acre for the first treatment^ and from twelve 
to twenty pounds at the second application. 

The use of this remedy in conformance with the above in- 
structions will affect a great-saving over conventional methods 
pertaining at present in California. Not unfrequently .our 
vineyardists sulphur in weather positively prohibitory to the 
disease, V^arieties but little liable to oidium, situated per- 
haps in the hottest and driest interior localities and trained 
low to escape it, often receive a dose which goes only to fer- 
tilize the soil and stimulate the growth of the vine. 

This latter function is one which, however, must not be 
overlooked; the general aspect of the vine is always improved 
and vegetation greatly stimulated by the free use of sulphur. 
A small percentage only of the sulphur applied vaporizes— the 
balance works into the soil, becomes slowly oxydized and fi- 
nally unites to form sulphates of the alkalies and alkaline earths,, 
which are in substance the essential ingredient of some of the 
best fertilizers. Still it is well to know whether the sulphur is 
applied for the cure of oidium and as a fertilizer, or as a 
fertilizer only. 

The most favorable hours for applying sulphur are from 
eight or nine o'clock in the morning to the middle of the af- 
ternoon, preferably from 9 a. m. till 2 p. m. The sulphur 
which comes in contact with dew or other water is in no wise 
altered thereby, but ceases to give off its vapor only until the 
water evaporates, and thereby exposes its surface to the at- 
mosphere. A rain following the application of sulphur does 
not alter this element, but results in damage only in removing 
the particles mechanically from the foliage of the vine to other 
places more remote from the seat of disease. 

Any wind other than very gentle will do much to shake off 
and remove the sulphur from the leaves. A windy day should 
therefore be avoided. In fact, a hot^ still midday is best in 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 195 

all respects, as amply proven by the strong odor of sulphur 
prevailing at the time ot such an application. 

In purchasing sulphur, its quality and fineness may best be 
determined by the use of the microscope. The weight of a 
.given bulk will establish the relative fineness, -but cannot be 
used in comparing sublimed with ground, as the mechanical 
condition of the two are different — sublimed sulphur is in 
beaded strings and occupies more space than ground sulphur, 
much as shavings are of greater bulk than sawdust. To per- 
sons experienced in its use, the fineness may be determined 
by the feeling — almost impalpable it should be. I have 
never known this sulphur adulterated, although ground sul- 
phur is frequently added to the sublimed to enable the mer- 
chant to sell it cheaper. All samples of Eastern sublimed 
sulphur examined I have found mixed in this manner, show- 
ing that the credit of ground snlphur has sometimes been un- 
consciously extended to the so-called and more expensive sub- 
limed. 

Where the question of purity or fineness arises with any 
vineyardist, samples may be sent to this office, where a prompt 
determination wnll be made and reported without cost to the 
applicant. 

To further substantiate these recommendations of the ground 
■sulphur, I will state that of the sulphur used of late years in 
'California vineyards, over three-fourths has been ground sul- 
phur; and I have yet to know of anyone employing sulphur 
extensively who has abandoned the ground, or even that 
ground in California, for the foreign prepared or sublimed sul- 
phur, which latter sells at one and a quarter to one and a half 
cents higher than the ground or triturated. 

Ground sulphur may be easily distinguished from sublimed 
by the difference in color, the latter always shows more yel- 
3ow, the former more white or a lighter tint of yellow. 



19t) GRAPE CULTURE AND 

COULURE OR IMPERFECT SETTING. 

Some varieties are constitutionally and inherently inclined 
to this disease, for instance the Malbeck, which always suf- 
fers from it, and therefore is not worth cultivating here. In 
others, it arises from unfavorable conditions of the atmos- 
phere, improper location and soil, etc. Among those most 
easily affected by these changes, I note the Zinfandel, Muscat 
of Alexandria, Flame Tokay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chaucne 
Noir, the Rieslings, Gelber Mosler, White Elben, etc. 
With these, it generally follows sudden changes of tempera- 
ture; for instance, very cool weather or frost, followed by hot 
northern winds; windy locations are more subject to it than 
those somewhat protected, etc. Sometimes, late rains, which 
keep the ground cold and moist, are the cause ; and again,, 
methods of pruning. If the vine has been pruned too short,, 
rank growth and coulure are almost sure to follow; and vice 
versa, if the vine is taxed beyond its strength, it is apt to set 
imperfectly. While we may not be able to control atmos- 
pheric influences entirely, we can certainly do much by 
pruning properly, taxing the vine neither too much nor too 
little; and it also should lead us to be careful in choosing 
our location, avoiding cold, damp soils and exposed loca- 
tions. No doubt we can also prevent it to a certain extent 
by using certain fertilizers, applied just before the bloom- 
Foremost of these, where it can be had, is the ammoniacal 
liquid, which can generally be had at gas works for very 
little more than filling into casks, and which is the cheapest 
and best fertilizer I know. Dilute each gallon of the liquid 
with seven gallons of water, put a cask on a low wagon or 
sled, and attach a hose with a faucet to it. Make a small 
hole above each vine, say eighteen inches or two feet from 
and above it, and apply about half a gallon to each vine. 
Two men can go over about five acres in a day, and it is 
wonderful how it stimulates the vine and increases the size 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 197 

of the berries, while the cost is mainly in the application. 
Sulphuring at time of bloom is also a partial preventative, 
whether its evaporation counteracts the deleterious atmos- 
pheric influences, or through its action as a fertilizer, or |poth, 
I do not pretend to decide, but there is no doubt in my mind 
as to its beneficial results. Early pinching or summer prun- 
ing before the bloom is one of the main preventatives. I 
think I am also warranted in saying, that grafted vines are 
less subject to it than those not grafted; and as French 
authorities recommend girdling of the vine or shoot as a pre- 
ventative, I hold that grafting, forming a temporary obstruc- 
tion to the flow of the sap downwards, has a tendency to 
make the vine set better. We know that grafted trees of any 
kind set their fruit better than seedlings; it is reasonable there- 
fore to infer the same of the vine. Ringing, or twisting a 
wire temporarily around the cane or shoot early in spring, 
will accomplish the same result, but this is a laborious pro- 
cess, and also apt to injure the vine. Binding and twisting 
the canes in long pruned varieties, or bending them in a cir- 
cular hoop, will also tend to prevent coulure. 

Some very interesting observations on coulure in San 
Diego County, by Mr. F. G. Morse, of the State University, 
can be found in the Report of the Viticultural work of 1885- 
1886, by Professor Hilgard, to which I refer those of my 
readers who wish to inform themselves further. 

Red Leaf, (Spanish Measles), Anthracnose, Poeken des 
Weinstocks. Whether what w^e know by the two first names 
is identical with what is known in France as AntJwacnose, in 
Germany as Pocken des Weinstocks, I am not quite sure, but 
presume they are identical. It generally appears about mid- 
summer, and I have mostly seen it on old Mission vines, 
which had been pruned to the stool shape for quite a number 
of years, and on which the saw had been formerly used. 
The disease often attacks but a single spur, sometimes half of 



198 GRAPE CrLTURE AND 

the vine, sometimes it takes all, while in another season it 
may be healthy again, ripen its fruit, and have healthy leaves. 
The leaves become spotted, like if drops of hot water had 
fallen on them, becoming livid at first, they soon change to 
almost scarlet, and finally drop; the fruit, if small, shrivels 
up and dries; if larger, it becomes marbled with dull gray, 
and does not attain full size. I think some injury to the 
vine, either by injudicious and severe pruning, or by tearing 
the roots with the plow, or by gophers or other animals, 
mostly the cause of it. The bluestone remedy has been 
recommended against it, and may prove effectual. It is pre- 
pared as follows: Dissolve in 25 gallons of water 16 lbs. of 
copper sulphate (bluestone), also shake 20 lbs of quicklime 
with seven and a half gallons of water into a milk of lime, 
which then rinse with the bluestone solution; this will pro- 
duce a light blue mixture, which should be frequently stirred 
during use. This is sprinkled on the vines by means of a 
little broom. Care should be taken not to sprinkle the 
grapes. It is recommeded by Professor Millardet also as a 
remedy against peronospora, and Prof. Hilgard thinks it may 
be a remedy against mildew. I think that an application of 
this solution, applied as a whitewash to the body of thuvine in 
the winter, would be very beneficial as a preventative of 
diseases, and also destroy a great many injurious insects and 
their eggs. 

BLACK KNOT. 

This disease, which appears sometimes on the trunk of the 
vine; sometimes on its head or below a spur, is mostly due to 
external injuries, either too short or injudicious pruning, 
bruises, breaking of the vine, or severe frosts; in short, by 
some cause w^hich effects a bursting of the sap vessels. For 
instance, if all the young growth of the vine is so badly frosted 
that even the wood is affected, and the dormant buds killed, 
there is nothing left to conduct the flow of sap, and stagnation 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 199 

ensues, by which the sap vessels below are extended to burst- 
ing, the sap vitiates, and in oozing out through the bark, 
forms these abnormal warty excrescences. Vines grown from 
cuttings of very large, porous wood are also more subject to it 
than those from medium, firm, short-jointed wood. I have 
already referred to injudicious short pruning, reducing a vine 
of say 300 buds, to eight or ten, as one, and the most preva- 
lent, cause of black knot. Judicious pruning, and in case of 
very destructive frosts in Fall or Spring, or the breaking of the 
vine as may sometimes happen, grafting may prove a preven- 
tative, as the scions will then serve as conductors and eleva- 
tors of the superfluous sap. In resorting to this remedy in 
large vines, it will be well to take them low down, and leave 
several buds to the scions. 



CHAPTER XYI. 

INSECTS AND ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 

Our most formidable insect enemy, the phylloxera, has al- 
ready been discussed in a previous chapter. Other insect 
enemies are not so formidable, though sometimes injurious 
enough. Perhaps the worst of these is the little white thrip, 
a leaf hopper, a little midge of a thing, which feeds on the 
under side of the leaves, causing them to dry or drop, when 
the fruit can not fully ripen, and therefore will not develop suf- 
ficient sugar. Early summer pruning is one of the aids to pre- 
vent exposure to the sun, as the young laterals will retain their 
leaves much longer. But sulphuring with bellows will also 
serve as a partial remedy, and kindling small fires in the 



200 <;rape culture and 

vineyard at night, or one person taking a brightly burning 
torch and walking through the rows, while another beats the 
vines, will cause the insects to fly into the flames and thus 
get scorched. 

The Grape Vine Fidia, a small ashy gray beetle, about the 
size of a common house fly, sometimes becomes very destruc- 
tive to the foliage. Sulphuring, and when they become too 
numerous, hand-shaking early in the morning, when the in- 
sect is still dormant, into a screen of the shape of an inverted 
umbrella, with a slit or space on one side to enable the oper- 
ator to push it under the vine, are about the most common 
remedies. 

The gray cut worm and the wire worm, a worm about 
two inches long with a hard covering of brownish yellow color^ 
sometimes materially injure the young shoots. The wire 
worm works mostly underground, while the cut worm will cut 
off the young shoots above the ground. Handpicking is 
about the only remedy; the cut worm is generally found un- 
der the loose clods at the base of the vine, while the wire 
worm is found mostly on the suckers below and the young 
shoots of the grafts where they are below the ground. 

There is also a black, longish beetle which will bore into 
the buds and wood, making a round hole, but I have not 
found it very numerous or very destructive. A steel blue 
beetle, very active, is also destructive to the young shoots, 
and sometimes a large worm, similar to the common tobacco 
worm, will feed upon the foliage. The leaf folders common 
in the East I have not yet observed here. 

The Rocky Mountain locust, or grasshopper, has visited 
certain sections of the State, and is very destructive. I have 
seen a vineyard of one hundred acres in Knights Valley kept 
completely bare by them one summer ; but in the next they 
had entirely disappeared. It is very difficult to guard against 
them, though the remedies advised by Prof. Riley can no 



WINE-MAKIN(J IN CALIFORNIA. 201 

doubt be of some use, digging ditches and then crushing 
them, etc. There visitations, however, are very few, and 
seem to be only temporary, as the rains of the next winter, 
together with their insect enemies, have destroyed them. 

It seems also that they destroy all other insect enemies to 
the vine, or starve them out, as seldom any of them are seen 
the next summer. 

Bees and wasps are sometimes quite troublesome, and it is 
certainly not advisable to grow grapes and also keep bees. 
Traps of small jars, filled with a solution of molasses, into 
which they will crawl and drown themselves, is about the 
best remedy. 

The punctured Diabrotica, a small beetle of the size of a 
common lady bug, also preys upon the berries, eating holes 
into them. So tar it has not been very destructive. Our 
common lady bug, the little red and black beetle, is accused 
by some of feeding on the bloom and the young berries, but 
I think erroneously. I have always considered it one of the 
best friends of the vineyardist and orchardist, as they destroy 
thousands of aphis or plant lice, ants andthrips, and I should 
be very sorry to see my little friend convicted of real mischief. 

Among our best friends we may also count the common 
toads and lizards, which destroy countless insects, and should 
be carefully preserved and fostered, not tortured and killed, as 
thoughtless children will do sometimes. 

I believe that a solution of London purple, about one 
pound to fifty gallons of water, sprinkled over the vines before 
the bloom, will destroy most of the insects that prey on the 
foliage. I trust that we will soon have conclusive evidence as 
to its merits. 

Rabbits or hares are sometimes very destructive, biting off 
the young vines and grafts. Other remedies, such as blood, 
etc., smeared on the vines, have done but little good so far. 
When they are numerous, a tight picket fence is the best safe- 



202 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

guard, such as is now woven by machines at 80 cents per 
rod, with five double wires, which can be fastened to posts by 
staples, and is an effectual protection. Otherwise the shot 
gun and grey hounds are the best protectors. 

Ground squirrels and skunks, also raccoons and foxes, are 
all very fond of grapes. The best remedy against the first, 
and which also generally tells on the others, as they will eat 
the poisoned squirrel, is Mc'Leods squirrel poison, made at 
Livermore, Alameda Co. It is poisoned wheat, flavored with 
Angelica, the smell of which seems to draw the squirrels, and 
is instantaneous death to them. We have killed hundreds of 
them by a single application of four or five grains, thrown into 
their holes. They can generally be found the next morning 
in front of their holes, and should be looked after and buried. 

The pretty little California quail, although no doubt very 
useful during the summer in destroying insects, becomes a 
great nuisance in fall, and I think it was wise in the super- 
visors of Napa County to change the season of their protec- 
tion from ist of October to 15th of August, as vineyardists 
can now use the gun against them in time to reduce their 
depredations. When we consider that they live entirely of 
grapes as soon as they ripen, and that they will use the "grape 
cure" at the rate of a bunch a day for each, we can easily 
imagine what an expensive luxury they may become. 



WIXi-J-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 203 



CHAPTER XVII. 

FROSTS AND HAIL, THEIR EFFECTS, PREVENTATIVES AND 
REMEDIES. 

While many sections of the State are free from frosts, 
others, and among them those which produce our choicest 
wines, are very much subject to them, and they have proved 
so capricious of late that it cannot be said that any location 
in those sections is entirely safe. Locations which had not 
suffered from them for ten years were frosted last spring, while 
others which were frosted badly in former years, escaped un- 
hurt this season. I speak here of late spring frosts and early 
frosts in fall. Our winters are not severe enough to hurt the 
vines, unless in abnormal seasons, where a moist fall which 
started the vines into an unnatural growth and 4:hey did not 
mature their wood fully, was followed by a sudden snap of 
cold weather. This is so seldom the case, however, that it 
should hardly be taken into consideration, and only in low 
moist locations not fit for grape culture; which should be 
avoided in planting anyway. 

But while we cannot say that any locality in some sections 
of the State is entirely free from frost, yet there is a great dif- 
ference. Low, narrow valleys and springy ground are pecu- 
liarly subject to it, and should therefore be avoided in choos- 
ing a location. Very often a few feet of elevation will make 
a great difference, and the vines in the valley may be all 
black with frost, while five feet above it, rising towards the 
hills, not a leaf may be touched. Therefore avoid low, moist 
locations; these will do, if you have them on your place, for 
grain and hay, vegetables, etc.; and plant your vines on the 



204 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

warm hillsides, sloping down to the valley, which will give 
you a choicer product than the rich valleys anyway, though 
perhaps not quite so much in seasons free from frost. It is 
discouraging to see a vineyard, rich in promise of a bountiful 
crop, cut down and blackened in a single night, although the 
damage is seldom so great as it appears at first sight. 

Then plant your lowest blocks with such varieties as will 
start late and bear well even from the lower buds. The Mar- 
sanne. Green Hungarian, Pedro Ximenes (generally called 
Sauvignon Vert, Colombar erroneously) Palomino (Golden 
Chasselas, erroneously of Napa), Clairette Blanche and Mataro 
are safest, and will yield a good crop even if the first growth 
is frosted, under a treatment I shall describe later. So much 
in regard to locating and planting as /;r7'^///(7//7^ measures. 
Among the other mechanical preventatives we will consider 

I St. Late Pruning. This is advocated and practiced by 
some, who argue that by deferring the pruning until May, when 
the vine has already grown six inches or more, they can keej) 
the lower buds on the shoots dormant, as the upper buds start 
first, and if they wait until danger from frost is past and then 
prune, they will have a crop from the lower buds. This is 
no doubt true, but the vine must also necessarily receive a 
severe shock, and be enfeebled thereby, especially as they 
bleed very severely if pruned at that time. It also makes the 
fruit very much later, there is danger of imperfect ripening 
-and immature growth in fall. Moreover, it is a great waste 
• of energy, to allow the vine to produce so many shoots and 
then prune them off. For all these reasons I do not think 
the practice should prevail. 

2nd. High Ti'aining. Some grow their stool pruning va- 
rieties with heads four and even five feet high, claiming that 
. they suffer less thus then when pruned to low heads. This may 
-be sometimes the case, but in seasons like the last we have 
seen that in the same piece of vineyard, sometimes the upper 



WINE-MAKING IN CAIJFORNIA. 205 

shoots were killed, while the lower escaped; while a neighbor- 
ing vine would show exactly the reverse; many had their 
lower and upper shoots killed, while the middle ones escaped; 
and another vine close by was not hurt at all. Therefore in 
such seasons hig'h training would not be a preventative, al- 
though in some cases it may prove beneficial; but we can 
hardly expect as good results from vines thus elevated, nor 
quite as early. 

jd. Smoking. This is one of the most generally adopted 
preventatives. It is claimed by its advocates that by raising 
a dense smoke early in the morning, about three to four 
o'clock, it will raise a cloud or covering above the vineyard 
which will prevent the effects of frost, if any comes, and more- 
over, prevent the direct rays of the sun from striking the 
vines, should they be frosted ; and thus allow them to thaw 
gradually. This is a plausible theory, and may hold good to 
a certain extent. If all the neighbors join and make so dense 
a smoke that it will serve as a heavy cloud over all the vine- 
yards, and the temperature does not fall too low, it may pre- 
vent or ameliorate damage. But they seldom work in unison, 
some prefer staying in bed while others watch and smoke; 
besides, I think smoke is only a preventative when the ther- 
mometer falls to the freezing point or slightly below it; but 
when it drops as low as 28^, or even 26^, as has been the 
case, even the most systematical smoking will not save the 
vines from damage. But if all these preventatives will fail 
sometimes, what shall we do to be safe, or, at least, partially so ? 

I have given this subject close attention and thought, and I 
think my experience of last spring has proven that I have 
found a method to obtain fair crops, even in the most frosty 
season. My method and partial preventative is "longer 
pruning." 

Instead of the commonly followed practice of pruning all 
spurs to two buds, I leave four, otherwise pruning as before ; 



206 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

leaving just as many spurs or canes as usual, but also leaving 
the canes somewhat longer than usual. Now for the result. 
As part of my vineyard is in the valley and on very rich 
soil, where the vines make a very vigorous growth, I pruned 
them last winter as indicated above, fearing there might be 
trouble from frost. Last spring (1887) was a very frosty one, 
and my vineyard was visited by Jack Frost two distinct 
times, once the latter part of April, the last and most destruc- 
tive one being May 12 and 13. On some of my vines, which 
had started vigorously, with shoots already 18 inches long 
from the upper buds, not a green leaf was left to tell the tale; 
while others had the tops of the shoots badly blackened, and 
some escaped with little or no injury. The vines presented 
a truly sickening and discouraging aspect, and my two sons 
gave up to one-fourth of a crop. As soon as we could ascer- 
tain the lull extent of the damage, we armed ourselves each 
with a small pair of shears we use for picking grapes, and cut 
all the blackened shoots off clean; while those which had 
only the tips slightly singed, were cut back only as far as 
damaged. It cost three of us a full week's work to go over 20 
acres of bearing vines, and when the job was done, about 5 
acres presented a perfectly barren appearance, with only here 
and there a green shoot or a few^ leaves left. My readers will 
please bear in mind that all the frozen shoots had started 
from the nppe7' buds on the spurs as well as on the canes in 
long pruned varieties. The varieties were Zinfandel, Chauche 
Oris, Chauche Noir, Franken Riesling, Pedro Ximenes, 
(Sauvignon Vert as known in this State), some Madeline 
Angevine, Orleans Riesling, Mataro. Of these the Pedro 
Ximenes and Mataro were only partly damaged, while the 
others fared about alike. The vines remained in this almost 
dormant condition for about a week, when the lower buds, 
dormant so far on the spurs as well as the canes, commenced 
to grow, and in about a week more they were all out in leaf. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 207 

showing abundance of fruit forms, except those shoots which 
we thought had been injured but slightly. These attempted 
to bloom, but as we had a few days of hot north wind just at 
that time, they dropped nearly all their bloom. At the 
present writing (August 15), the vines that w^ere entirely 
frosted show a nice crop of about 3 tons to the acre, of finely 
set and developed bunches and berries, while those only par- 
tially frosted are not near so good, with the exception of the 
Pedro Ximenes and Mataro, which show a good crop from 
first growth. The vines have made an enormous growth, 
were pinched when the young shoots were 18 inches long, 
and are now interlaced with each other, so that it is difficult 
to get through between. 

The conclusions to be drawn from this are very simple. 
When there is any danger from frost, we should prune to 
double the amount of buds, to be safe. If no frost comes, 
we can easily rub out all w^eak and superfluous shoots, reduc- 
ing them to one half the number. This will give them all 
more room and air, and it is certainly easier to rub off a super- 
fluous shoot, than to add to those which nature has alotted. 
Pruning is rather a perversion of nature any way; and when 
we overstep the bounds of reason, when we infringe her laws 
by mutilating, instead of only reducing to such limits as will 
give us the most perfect fruit, outraged nature will rebel and 
punish us in time. 

Mr. John H. Wheeler, our present chief viticultural officer, 
has experimented in the same direction, and as he tells me, 
w^ith favorable results similar to mine. The difference in his 
treatment from mine only consists in his leaving still longer 
canes, and not so many spurs. 

After this season's experience, perhaps one of the worst we 
have had, in its sudden changes from low temperature to 
scorching north winds, I have little fears of raising a satisfac- 
tory crop every season, even after destructive frosts. Still, I 

14 



208 GRAPE CULTITRE AND 

shall extend my vineyards to the hillsides and more elevated 
slopes, of which I have an abundance, and would advise 
every one to do the same. I would not have planted in the 
valley, but my predecessor thought himself safe, as there had 
not been any frosts there within the memory of that famous 
personage, the " oldest inhabitant." 

Sometimes, but very rarely, we are visited by destructive 
hailstorms in early spring, which are similar in their effects to 
frost. I would advise the same treatment in that case, cut- 
ting back the injured shoots, and trusting to the dormant 
buds for the crop. 

Yet another point in this connection ought to be mentioned 
here. It is often the case that we have extremely hot weather 
at the beginning of the vintage, when fermentation sets in 
with great violence, but stops at a certain point, which I shall 
more fully explain when I come to wine making. Between 
the 15th of September and the ist of October, we generally 
have a few showers which refresh the vines and the grapes; 
after which there seldom is any trouble, but fermentation 
goes on normally and well. This later crop, delayed about 
three weeks, will be apt to escape this trying period, ripening 
after it, but still with abundance of sugar to make a first class 
wine, and I think will have more bouquet and sprightliness 
than the first would have had. It is not what is termed 
" second crop " which comes on the laterals of the fruit bear- 
ing shoots, but " first crop " from the main shoots, only de- 
layed a few weeks. I hope to report to my readers, before 
this volumes reaches them, how far these conjectures have 
been verified by the facts. 

Some varieties are also much hardier than others, and 
among these I will name the Pedro Ximenes (erroneously 
Sauvignon Vert, Colombar) Mataro, Marsanne, Green Hun- 
garian, Clairette Blanche. All of these start late in spring, 
and are therefore not apt to suffer so much. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 209 

Since the above was written we have approached the 
vintage, a full month having elapsed, and I can report now, 
September i6th, a larger and better crop than even predicted 
then. The totally frosted vines will make four to five tons 
to the acre, of fine compact bunches, which will all be fully 
ripe by ist of October, and which certainly will make a 
first-class wine. So fully am I convinced of having found 
the best remedy and preventative against frost, that I shall 
not attempt to smoke, but trust entirely to long pruning; and 
feel certain of a crop. 



CHAPTER XVni. 

THE VINTAGE GATHERING THE GRAPES FOR WINE.. 

For this, the grapes should be thoroughly ripe^ yet not too 
ripe. There is a period in the maturity of every fruit, when 
it is at perfection; as soon as this period is passed, it ap- 
proaches decay, loses sprightliness, and while it may develop 
more sugar, and, as is the case in the grape, turn into raisins, 
its wine will lose in freshness and bouquet, and gain only a 
larger percentage of alcohol. If, on the contrary, the grapes 
are picked too green, the wine will always have a greenish, 
unripe taste, and be harsh and sour, owing to the surplus of 
tartaric acid and malic acid. 

General indications of ripeness in the fruit. The stem of 
the bunch changes from green to brown, between the shoot 
and the small knob on the stem above the bunch, and the 
bunch becomes pendant. The berry becomes translucent 
and soft, its skin thin, and they separate easily from the stem. 



210 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



The juice acquires an agreeable sweetness and flavor, and be- 
comes thick and glutinous. The seeds separate easily frorm 
the flesh. 

These will serve as general indications, but the surest test 
is the sacharometer or must scale, of which there are many 
kinds ; but as Balling's is the one commonly used in this 
State, and is about the simplest and best, we will take it as 
our guide. They are all constructed on the same principle, 
that of the density of a fluid, for instance water, being increased 
by adding sugar; and therefore the sweeter the must, the less 
will the instrument sink in it, or rather, the more will the 
sugar uphold it. If an average sample of grapes is taken 
from the vineyard, the juice expressed and strained, and 
at the right temperature, which should be from 62 to 65^ 
Farenheit, the instrument will test it with certainty, and is 
surer than all other indications. Figures 23 and 24 will show 
Balling's Sacharometer and the testing 
jar, which can be of glass or tin, with 
a wider foot or rim to stand upright. 
If none of these are at hand, any jar 
or glass that has the necessary depth 
for the sacharometer to sink, will an- 
swer. Fill the jar full enough so that 
when the instrument sinks in it, the 
fluid will be close to the rim, then 
wipe your instrument carefully, hold- 
ing it by the stem, and let it sink 
ff III gradually until it floats. Then press 
^•^-^r^^l lightly Yvith the finger, so that it will 
Fig. 23. Fig. 24. 

come to an equilibrium, but be careful that there is no fluid 
on the top above, as that would influence its accuracy. 
The surface of the liquid, when the instrument has become 
stationary, will indicate the sugar contained in the must. 




WINE-MAKING IX CALIFORNIA. 211 

where it touches the number on the stem of the instrument. 

The must should not be less than twenty-two or higher 
than twenty-five, to make a good, light white table wine or 
claret. But there is a certain difference in varieties, which 
should be borne in mind. Some varieties ripen irregularly, 
and have quite a number of overripe berries; while others 
are hardly ripe enough. The Zinfandel is one of these, and 
as these shriveled berries contain hardly any juice, but rather 
dried sugar or caramel, the sacharometer shows less sugar in 
these than they really contain. The Zinfandel should be very 
ripe, to make as full flavored and smooth a wine as it will, if 
properly handled. Ill testing such grapes, always count from 
i" to 2^ more, than the instrument shows. If such Zinfandel 
must show 23^ count it 25, and your grapes are ripe enough. 
If it does not show this, wait with the vintage until it does, 
except in abnormal seasons, when they will hardly come up 
to it, and yet may commence to rot, which is a sure sign that 
they should be picked. In Burger again, and a few others, 
you can hardly expect more than 20 to 22^, even when very 
ripe, and it would be unwise to wait longer. The remedy in 
these cases will be to blend with a heavier wine, although 20^ 
being equal to about 10 per cent, alcohol in the fermented 
wine, is really heavy enough for an ordinary light wine. 

In this connection, let me impress upon my readers the 
importance of a succession of varieties, from early to late, so 
that they will not be crowded by one variety which ripens at 
the same time, and of which they would be forced to pick 
some hardly ripe enough at first, while the last would be over 
ripe. Have a succession of, say six varieties in about equal 
quantity, so that you can take a week for each, and do it 
justice. There is one great trouble, with which large winer- 
ies, who purchase grapes in addition to their own product, 
have to contend with; they cannot control the ripeness of the 
grapes, nor the supply each day, as well as the individual, 



212 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



who works up only his own product; they are often rushed 
by their supplies beyond their capacity, and the consequence 
is a great deal of hasty and imperfect work, resulting in 
faulty wines. 

IMPLEMENTS FOR PICKING. 

Knives are generally used, but I find a small scissor or 
shear, imported by Justinian Caire, and manufactured at 
Geneva, much handier. Fig. 25 shows the implement about 
two-thirds natural size. They are very 
convenient, cut easily, can be held in the 
hand without strain, a plated spring opens 
them wide enough for cutting, and they 
do not shake the bunch and vine as a 
knife will, thereby preventing dropping of 
berries and wastage. Their price is about 
$7 per dozen, or "75 cts. retail. Large 
pruning shears can also be used, but are 
not near so handy. 

For receptacles of the grapes we gen- 
erally use wooden boxes here, holding 
from 40 to 60 pounds each, with oblong 
holes in the ends, so that the workman 
can carry them before him. They are 
mostly bought in shooks, nailed together 
at home, and bound at the ends with a 
strip of rawhide or wire, to keep them 
more solid. Care should be taken that 
the bottoms are of one piece, as it pre- 
vents breakage and waste through the 
cracks. They are, when filled, carried 
to the avenues, from where the wagon 
takes them to the winery direct. When 
grapes, especially the tender skinned 
varieties, must be hauled a long distance 




AVINi:-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA, 213 

over rough roads, it will be found advantageous to have two 
oblong vats, four feet high, made of good redwood, and to 
fit on an ordinary wagon, into which the boxes can be emptied. 
This will prevent leakage, and the juice which runs out and 
is wasted, is generally the best ; the grapes can be pitched 
with forks on to the elevator at the winery, and thus save it 
all. 

The number of pickers to be engaged, depends altogether 
on the quantity to be worked up each day. A man can pick 
and carry from 25 to 50 boxes, say at an average, a ton a 
day, which will vary with the varieties of grapes, whether 
large or small bunches, etc. What is picked in one day, 
should fill at least one vat or cask when pressed, and be 
crushed the same evening or day. The grapes should also not 
be too warm; if the temperature rises to 95 or 100 as it some- 
times does for a few days, they should be allowed to cool dur- 
ing the night, if necessary ; and worked up in the morning. 
Of this I shall treat more fully in " Making the Wine." 

It will become necessary sometimes, when the grapes do 
not ripen evenly, from the influence of frosts or other causes, 
to pick several times, taking only the bunches that are fully 
ripe. Pickers should be closely instructed and watched in 
this respect, so that only evenly ripened grapes, which 
alone can make a good wine, are taken. They should also 
be instructed to pick out all decayed or rotten berries, as well 
as those affected by mildew and Red Leaf. All of these are 
apt to introduce the germs of disease into the wine. Sound, 
finely flavored wine can only be made from perfectly sound 
grapes, well ripened; and any negligence of this kind will 
retaliate on the wine maker. 

It will sometimes be found desirable to blend several 
varieties, and when they ripen at the same time it is best to 
blend by gathering at same time and mixing in the fermenting 
vat. For instance, the Chasselas Fontainebleau (Gutedelj 



214 GRAPE CULTUKE AND 

and Victoria Chasselas will blend well together, as the Vic- 
toria takes away the softness of the Gutedel, and gives it more 
character. For this purpose, and to find the best blends, the 
winemaker should experiment, and he will soon find how to 
blend, and in what proportions. No rules can be given that 
will apply everywhere and in every season, as the product 
will change with location and season. 

It is also necessary to consider what class of wines are to be 
made from the grapes. If light, dry wines, wi^th fine bouquet 
and sprightliness are desired, the grapes as before remarked, 
should be ripe, but not over ripe. If very full bodied, 
smooth wines are the object, let them get fully ripe. If for 
sweet wines, let them remain as long as they can hang, with- 
out decaying. 

Boxes and all other utensils should of course be perfectly 
clean and sweet, so that there is no danger of acquiring a 
mouldy or impure taste. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

PICKINli THE GRAPES FOR TABLE AND MARKET. THE GRAPE 

CURE. 

The information I can give on this important branch of 
grape growing is very limited, as my attention has been de- 
voted almost entirely to wine making. I must, therefor, re- 
fer my readers mostly to other sources for details of the busi- 
ness, packing, etc. The most common package now in use 
is the square basket holding about six pounds. The grapes 
are picked the day before, so that the stems wilt slightly, 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 215 

which makes them pack more solid and convenient. The 
bunches are then carefully assorted, all imperfect or decayed 
berries clipped out with a small scissors, the bunches divided 
if necessary, to pack more cgnveniently and snugly, and then 
shipped across the continent. This season's shipments to 
New York and other Eastern markets seem to have been very 
successful in the main, and realized good prices. The first 
and earliest come from Vacaville and Pleasant Valley, while 
the great bulk seems to come from Sacramento Valley, and 
the latest from the Santa Cruz Mountains, where they remained 
fresh and green on the vines until January last year. The 
following is an extract from a letter of Mr. William B. West, 
of Stockton, and contains some interesting data: 

"As to the raisin interest, I am not up to the times. I have found 
long ago that the Muscatel cannot be raised here, and I gave it up. In 
the shipment of table grapes we find that many good varieties, which 
were formerly considered too tender to bear shipment to the East, with 
improved cars and manner of packing, arrive in good condition. The 
soil and climate of the vicinity of Stockton has proved to be unusually 
good to produce a hardy grape that will ship well, and in the future 
this will probably be our chief production. Our grapes are not early ; 
but when they are ripe they are a formidable competitor in the market. 
The first good grape that we have, which ripens about the middle of 
August and continues a month, is the Black Prince, or Rose of Peru ; 
it is a very, firm, sweet grape ; many tons are shipped to Utah, Mon- 
tana, and Texas, from Stockton. Next is the flame colored Tokay, 
which colors well here, and is a very superior grape for long journeys 
as the season advances. We also ship the Mission, which is very dif- 
ferent here from those grown at Napa, being much larger and sweeter. 
We shipped several loar's of them last season, with good profits, but 
they were very fine. 

" Still later, we have the Black Ferrara, a fine large grape with a 
deep blue bloom, a very abundant bearer, usually ten to twelve tons per 
acre, and an excellent keeper. It ripens from the 5th of October to No- 
vember. The Emperor is also a great favorite in the East ; it is a deep 
ruby red, keeps well, but is not so regular and good a bearer as the 
Ferrara. 
" These are our most reliable shipping varieties; of course we use the 



216 GRAPP] CUI/rURE AND 

early varieties, such as the Sweetwater and Chasselas Musqiii, but as 
even our earliest kinds are more backward than those of Vacaviile, they 
are not so profitable as later and finer kinds. 

" I have fruited the J.oja, or grape of Ahneria, the variety sold in 
the East from Spain. I find, however, that it requires a more moist 
and sandy soil than mine; it does better upon a river-bank vineyard 
about ten miles from Stockton. Mine have good keeping qualities, but 
are not very large or prolific. I think this variety should be grown in 
a warm locality, where the roots could have an unlimited supply of wa- 
ter, as it has at Almeria, Spain. There are several Spanish varieties 
which do well, but they are white, and not much sought after here or 
in the interior. 

"I did not mention the Muscat of Alexandria, as it is not grown suc- 
cessfully in our s'trong soil. Some day the Spanish kinds will be grown 
for shipment to tb.e East ; but we must find a very warm locality. 
Stockton, notwithstanding the generally prevailing impression, is not 
warm ; our springs are cool." 

The Natoma vineyards at Folsoni have been very success- 
ful in shipping grapes from their locality, and always realized 
the highest prices. Valuable information will be found in the 
chapter " Individual enterprise " under the head of Natoma 
vineyards. Sonoma county has always been successful in 
producing fine Tokay grapes, and as the prices for good ship- 
ping grapes vary from $40 to $65 per ton, delivered to the 
packer, this has been more profitable than wine grapes. But 
in this, California has entered an entirely new and untrodden 
field, has had to learn solely by its own experience, and is 
only now beginning to see its way to a very successful trade. 
It will be some time before we are fully posted as to best 
varieties and localities adapted to them, methods of lengthen- 
ing out the season, etc. One very important step is the es- 
tablishment of four cold storage rooms, of a capacity each of 
30x35 feet, in one of the wings of the old sugar refinery at San 
Francisco, now occupied by the Wine ^Storage and Security 
Co., San Francisco. It is the intention of the Company to 
keep grapes and other perishable fruits here all winter, and I 
hope they will meet with all the success their enterprise de- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 217 

serves. They seem to spare no pains to meet all the require- 
ments of complete cold storage. No doubt fresh grapes, well 
kept, would bring a good price in February and March. 

For home market, they are generally packed in 2olb boxes ; 
and all methods of packing require,- as a matter of course 
great nicety and care in handling the fruit. So far, it has 
been done mostly by Chinese help, but I do not see why fe- 
male help could not be used as well, as has already been done 
so largely in canneries, and with such entire success. Surely 
this is work to which their nimble fingers, and taste for the 
beautiful should eminently fit them. A great many grapes 
are also canned every season, in the common quart cans. For 
this purpose, the Muscat of Alexandria is used in preference, 
on account of its color and fine muscat flavor, the largest and 
most perfect berries only being used for the purpose ; while 
the smaller berries can be utilized for grape jelly. 

But one very important method of utilizing the grapes seems 
to have been strangely overlooked and neglected so far ; the 
grape cure, so largely followed and universally recommended 
by the leading physicians of Europe. Yet it would seem to 
be more needed on this dyspeptic continent than anywhere 
else. Thousands upon thousands flock annually to the 
vineyards of the Rhine, the Moselle and the Danube ; they 
commence with eating half a pound of grapes per day, which, 
before a month is over, is generally increased to four and five 
pounds daily, and is considered the universal remedy for 
impaired digestion and diseases of the bowels and kidneys. Is 
it not strange, that here, where so many suffer from these dis- 
eases, and the remedy is at their door, so to say, it is used so 
little, and seldom recommended by our physicians.? Let me 
suggest to the landlords of our numerous summer resorts the 
propriety, nay the necessity, of having at least a few acres of 
vineyard connected with their establishments, where there 
guests" can have fresh grapes at any time during the autumn 



218 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

months ; fresh and cool every morning, with the dews of the 
night still sparkling on them. I venture to predict that their 
mineral waters would enjoy a greater notoriety and celebrity 
than they ever did before, and their visitors be sure to return 
the next season. It would add so much to their attractions 
that they could not stay away. The grape is considered the 
most healthy fruit on the Globe, and it is strange that here, 
where it comes to the greatest perfection, it is utilized so little 
for sanitary purposes. As long as the American nation sub- 
sists on warm biscuits and pies, washed down with tea and 
coffee, intermixed with bad whiskey and brandy, so long will 
it continue to be, and become more so every year, a nation 
of dyspeptics. When, in the place of these, good healthy 
bread and fresh fruit of every kind becomes the daily food, 
and good, sound, light wine the daily drink, we can hope for 
a change for the better. If these few lines can give an im- 
petus, and induce but a small number to try it, they have not 
been written in vain, for I know that it need but be tried to 
be appreciated and followed. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE VINTAGE — RAISIN MAKING. 

This is a very important branch of the industry, next in im- 
portance to the wine interest. How important it is, what 
large proportions it has already assumed, and how bright the 
outlook for its future, can best be seen from the circular of 
Messrs. Geo. W. Meade & Co., one of the largest commis- 
sion firms in that trade, and also the heaviest packers of Cal- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 219 

ifornia raisins, from which I take the liberty to quote that 
part relating to raisins. They say : 

"We estimate the total product of 1886 at 703,000 boxes of 20 lbs 
each, and apportioned as follows: 

Fresno district, boxes 225,000 

Tulare district, boxes 8,000 

Riverside district, boxes 185,000 

Orange and Santa Ana district, boxes 1(50,000 

San Diego district, boxes, 25,000 

San Bernardino Co., outside of Riverside, boxes 10,000 

Yolo and Solano 75,000 

Scattering, Yuba, Butte, Sacramento, etc 15,000 

Total, boxes 703,000 

"It is with a great deal of satisfaction that we approach the 
subject of California raisins for the year i886. For many 
seasons past it has simply been up-hill work to introduce our 
raisins and to convince the trade generally that California 
could produce a fruit equal to the Malaya. While the fail- 
ure to do this in a measure was perhaps due to the fact that 
many of the packing of California raisins were of poor quality, 
it is nevertheless also true, that a prejudice existed in the 
minds of the Eastern jobbers to that extent that they persist- 
ently set their faces against a California raisin. Notwith- 
standing these discouragements California has kept steadily at 
work improving the quality as well as the style 'of packing, 
year by year, until the outturn of i886, on many brands, at 
least, equals if it does not exceed in quality the very best 
Spanish fruit. 

"Next year we anticipate that further improvements, both 
in packing and labeling, will be made, so that nothing will be 
left that can be desired on that score. 

"The labor in Spain for raisin packing is very cheap, run- 
ning from 15 to 30 cents per day, while in California the 
same work is paid with from $1.00 to $1.25 per day. To 



220 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

counteract this great discrepancy, therefore, it has become 
incumbent upon the ingenuity of Californians to devise and 
create machinery which would not only quicken the packing 
of raisins, but would at the same time reduce the cost. The 
result of this is that in California machinery is about to be 
used and run by steam power, for the steming, grading, fac- 
ing, and packing in the boxes of the fruit as it is received 
from the grader. Machinery of this kind is almost human in 
its action, but is calculated to expedite and cheapen packing, 
and in a short time the cheap labor of Spain will be entirely 
counteracted by the ingenuity of the California Yankee. 

"All over the State this year there has been a great im- 
provement in packing, and many of the brands produced 
here rank equal or superior to the best Malaga fruit. A 
proof of this fact is that such markets as New York, Boston, 
Philadelphia and other large Eastern cities have taken the 
finest brands of our raisins at prices equal to, if not superior 
to, the Spanish goods. Different sections of the State natur- 
ally claim the best raisins, but very much depends on the 
care taken in packing, sweating and properly preparing them 
for market. Nearly all the various raisin sections of Califor- 
nia can and do produce excellent raisins, and there are many 
as yet undeveloped sections which can produce raisins equal 
to any yet turned out. As a general proposition, it will pay 
all producers to sell their fruit in the sweat boxes to some reg- 
ular and reliable packer, who will maintain standard grades 
from their section of the country. The policy now in use to 
some extent, of small producers packing on their own account, 
only produces irregular and uneven grades, and is not calcu- 
lated to lead to any permanent benefit of the industry. We 
can repeat our suggestions of last year, that some different 
branding should be used for California raisins. As it is now, 
we simply imitate the Spanish brands, when something dis- 
tinctly Californian should be used. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 221 

"The trade for California raisins of good brands through- 
out the United States has never been as good as this year, 
and at fair prices. They have been introduced where they 
have never been known before, and it is now only a question 
of time when, with care in packing and grading, we will en- 
tirely drive the imported raisins from America." 

In a letter just received, the same firm puts the actual quan- 
tity of last year's crop at 750,000 boxes, considerable above 
their estimate; and estimate this season's pack at 1,000,000 
boxes, one fourth more than last year. 

The California process of raisin curing differs from the 
European, and is thus described by Mr. N. B. Blowers, one 
of the veterans in that culture: 

The grape should be allowed to remain on the vine until 
quite ripe, showing a yellowish or golden color, and being 
more translucent than when too green. Then they should be 
carefully picked, and placed upon a drying tray, usually two 
by three feet in size, and exposed with an inclination towards 
the sun, in some convenient place, generally between the rows 
in the vineyard. After being sufficiently exposed to become 
about half dried they are turned once in this manner, viz.: 
two workmen taking an empty tray, place it upon a full one, 
holding them together firmly, and with a swinging motion 
turn them over, and replace the now turned grapes in their 
former position. The turning should be done in the morning, 
before the dew is quite off the grapes ; then, when the grapes 
have become so dry as to loose their ashy appearance, some 
being a little too green, and others quite dry enough, they are, 
after removing those that are entirely too green, slid from the 
tray into large sweat boxes, having a thick sheet of paper be- 
tween every twenty-five or thirty pounds of raisins, then they 
are removed to the storeroom where they should remain two 
weeks or more. When ready to pack it will be found that 
the too moist ones have parted with their surplus moisture. 



222 (JRAPE CULTURK AND 

which has been absorbed by the stems and drier raisins. The 
stems are now tough, and the raisins soft and ready to pack. 
They are carefully placed in frames made of iron or steel. 
The large and fair ones being carefully placed in the bottom 
of the frames, the surplus stems and berries cut away ; then 
the average raisins are arranged in and weighed, placing five 
pounds in each frame and pressed, but not enough to break the 
skin. They are then passed to an inspector, who examines the 
exposed side of the raisins, removing all imperfect ones, then 
placing the wrapper paper on the frame, holds it in place with 
a wooden or steel plate, turns it bottom up, drops the left 
end into the box, slides the plate quickly from under the 
plate and it drops into the box, then pressing slightly upon 
the movable bottom of the frame, the frame is removed. The 
bottom of the frame is then pressed more firmly, to cause the 
raisins to fill the space formerly occupied by the sides and 
ends of the frame, then it is removed and ihe face of the latter 
is exposed, all imperfect berries or too wet ones are removed, 
and all vacancies or hollows filled with large, loose raisins. 
The label of the proprietor is then placed on the face; the 
ends of the wrapper, and then the sides are folded over, the 
box cover nailed on, and they are ready for market. 

The favorite varieties for raisins are the Muscatelle Gordo 
Blanco, or Muscat of Alexandria, while a very fine seedless 
raisin, but much smaller, is made from the Sultana. The 
Corrinths, white and black, so far have not proven sufficiently 
successful here to warrant their extensive culture. 

There is a difference of opinion yet among raisin men, 
whether irrigation is absolutely necessary or not. The irriga- 
tionists claim that the berries are larger, more uniform and 
showy, while the other side claims finer flavor and more deli- 
cate bloom. Not being a raisin grower myself, I am notable 
to decide which is right, but most of the raisins so far have 
been produced under a system of irrigation. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 223 

During the last year or so, raisin growers have had a net 
return of from 120 to 200 dollars per acre, and found the 
industry very profitable, while, when they sell their crop in 
the sweat boxes, as is the general custom now, they have 
comparatively light expenses, as compared to the wine maker. 
The future of the California raisin trade seems to be secured, 
and with our rainless falls we have superior facilities for dry- 
ing to any country on the globe. 

It is also an open question yet, whether the heat of the 
sun, or artificial heat in driers are to be preferred. Without 
going into this question further, we may rejoice in the un- 
disputed fact, that every one can make raisins without artifi- 
cial heat. 

As a further evidence how California raisins are appre- 
ciated, I copy the following from the Neiu York Mail and 
Express: 

CALIFORNIA RAISINS AHEAD. 

Competing Successfully With the Spanish Fruit in New York. 

The California raisin has reached such perfection that it is now able 
to compete successfully with the finest of the Spanish fruit. Already 
some of the present season's crop is in the market, and presents a hand- 
some appearance. The loose native Muscatel is now packed by machin- 
ery, which has enabled the packers to compete with the low-priced 
manuel labor of Spain. The "steam power stemmer" stems and di- 
vides the fr'iit into three grades at the rate of 100,000 pounds a day, 
with tlie assistance of about twenty men. This rapidity of operation 
would surprise the Spanish packers with their primitive metliods of 
stemming by hand. To this is added a packing machine, which packs 
the stemmed raisins in boxes of twenty pounds weight each. A well- 
known handler said this morning: 

"I must acknowledge that this season the California raisins are su- 
perior to the imported Spauish fruit. The grape crop has been large 
and line, the raisins better cured, and, I think, will command nearly if 
not quite as high a price as the foreign product. Were it not for the 
Interstate Commerce law, which has increased the cost of transporta- 
tion from twenty to thirty-five cents a tox, the native fruit could be 
sold cheaper. It seems strange to me that the government slionld thus 

15 



224 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

impose a tax upon the native products of the country. I am informed 
that over 1,000,000 boxes, or 50,000,000 pounds, of raisins are coming 
Eastward from California. Of tliis quantity, about one-tenth, or 2,000,- 
000 pounds, will reach New York. A part of this shipment has al- 
ready arrived, and more will do so next week. So fine is the fruit that 
it is bought up to a great extent before it reaches here. The remain- 
der of the Eastern shipment is dropped by the way at the principal 
cities. It is my opinion that the California raisin will soon drive the 
foreign out of the American market, and will finally be exported to 
Europe.*' 



CHAPTER XXI. 

INDIVIDUAL ENTEKPRISP:. 

It will be impossible, in the limited space allotted to me, 
to do justice, or even mention, all the important individual ef- 
forts in grape growing, wine making and cellars, for which 
our State is already justly famous ; nor would it be of any 
real benefit to enumerate them all, were such a thing possible. 
But a short description and mention of a few of the largest 
and most important should find place, as part of a picture of 
this immense industry. 

The largest vineyard in this State is that of Senator Leland 
Stanford, at Vina, Tehama County, on a piece of rich allu- 
vial bottom land on the banks of the Sacramento River. 
On his magnificent ranch of over 50,000 acres, an area of 
about 3 miles is now planted in vines. The oldest vineyard 
is now about thirty years old and was planted by a Mr. 
Gerke. To this have been added in 1882-, 1,021 acres, in 
1883, 1,053 acres, in 1885, 900 acres, a total of 3,054 acres. 
All this immense tract can be irrigated if thought advisable. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 225 

but SO far only the young plantations have been watered the 
first year, to give the cuttings a start,. and there is no neces- 
sity for further irrigation. The leading varieties are Zinfan- 
del, Trousseau, Blaue Elbe, Burger, Sultana, Mission, Mal- 
vasia, Orleans Riesling ; although Sauvignon, Franken and 
Johannisberg Riesling, Chas. Fontainebleau, Black Burgundy, 
Mataro and others are planted on a smaller scale. The vines 
are of course, not in full bearing yet, but they produced last 
year about 2,500 tons, while the crop this year was estimated 
at 5,000 tons, though it may have fallen somewhat short, as 
in most of the vineyards in the State. On one corner of these 
immense vineyards the wineries, distillery, etc., are located, 
covering about 4 acres of ground. They are: i. The old 
cellar, two stories high, 105x157 feet, capacity 500,000 gal- 
lons. 2. The new fermenting house 101x169 feet, two 
stories high, capacity 500,000 gallons. 3. The new cellar, 
266x297 feet, capacity 1,700,000 gallons. 4. Distillery, 
32x95 feet. 5. Brandy warehouse, 34x100 feet. There is 
the old Gerke cellar additional, capacity 500,000 gallons, 
and a new bonded warehouse, 34x100 feet. 

The machinery is all run by steam, of Heald's newest im- 
proved pattern of crushers, stemmers and hydraulic presses, 
4 crushers, 4 presses, and can work up 400 tons of grapes per 
day. The casks are all oak, of a capacity of 2000 gallons each, 
the fermenting tanks of redwood 10 feet wide, with a capacity 
of 2,400 gallons each. Capt. H. W. Mclntyre, the superin- 
tendent of the cellars, is one of the best architects in the State, 
and has spared no pains to make the buildings and machinery 
as complete and practical as possible. Mr. Smith is Farm 
Superintendent, Mr. Shackleford Civil Engineer. Most of 
the new buildings were put up in the course of this summer, 
and are of brick. During the vintage and erecting the build- 
ings a force of about 1,200 men were employed on the place. 
All the cellars are lighted by electricity, so that a force can be 



226 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

kept working night and day, if necessary. When Gov. Stan- 
ford first conceived the idea of planting such a large vineyard, 
he declared his object to be to furnish cheap, wholesome wine 
to the million, so that every laborer could drink it. In a few^ 
years the vineyard bids fair to fulfill it. I doubt whether very 
fine, light dry wines can be made there; the tendency of soil 
and climate would seem to be more favorable to sweet, heavy 
wines, and the manufacture of brandy. But if good, dry wines 
can be made there, (and this season's operations seem to 
prove it), the present management will make them, and with 
all the facilities for fermenting and regulating the temperature 
I have no doubt that sound wines at least can be produced, 
and the object of Gov. Stanford be attained. 

The next largest vineyard in the State is the Nadeau vineyard 
in Los Angeles Co., but my information about it is not as com- 
plete as I could wish, as the manager, Mr. Eggleston, did not 
respond to my enquiries, and the notes I have were only fur- 
nished me by thecourtesy of the officers of the State Viticultural 
Commission. These show 2,401 acres of vineyard, of which 
i,40oacresare Mission, 466 acres Zinfandel, 466 acres Riesling, 
balance mixed varieties. There were on hand some time ago, 
50,000 gallons Brandy, 4,800 gallons x\ngelica, 5,000 gallons 
Port, how^ much dry wine, I am unable to tell. This would 
seem to indicate a tendency for the manufacture of sweet wines 
and brandy. The vineyard is still young, and has not attained 
its full bearing capacity. 

The next largest, and the most important perhaps as 
a factor to solve many of the problems of Viticulture 
in this State, is that of the Natoma Company at Folsom, 
near Sacramento. I visited the vineyards in 1884, to- 
gether with its then manager, Mr. Horatio P. livermore, to 
whom I am indebted for most of the information I give now; 
and I considered it then the most promising large enterprise' 
on this coast. The subdivision into 400 acre tracks, each with 



WIXE-MAKING IN CALIVORXIA. 227 

its foreman and separate working force, with buildings in the 
center, affording convenient quarters for all the men necessary, 
as well as for the work animals, barns, tools and tool sheds, 
struck me as the only possible way to work large vineyards 
successfully; and I could not help but admire the organisatory 
talent of Mr. Livermore, which was evident in every direction. 
Everything seemed to go like clockwork; the young vineyards 
were in a high state of cultivation, showing extraordinary 
growth and even some fruit; and the many new varities tested 
then, would have been of incalculable benefit to our young 
industry, if the plans of Mr. Livermore had been adhered to. 
I think it a public calamity that he was forced to abandon a 
task he had so well begun; although the vineyards may have 
fully come up to the expectations of the present managers in 
a pecuniary point of view, the benefits which would have 
accrued to the grape growing public at large, were in a great 
measure lost sight of. The experiments with new varieties, 
imported by Mr. Livermore, and which such a company 
could have carried out better than individuals, were virtually 
abandoned; and although the varieties were in a measure dis- 
tributed over the State, and thus not altogether lost, the test- 
ing at Folsom or by the Company was abandoned. It is be- 
cause I think this enterprise so important in its results to the 
wine growing interests of the State, that I have given it so 
much space in these columns. The soil at Natoma upon 
which most of the vineyards are located, is a red, volcanic soil, 
intermixed with stones and pebbles, naturally well drained, 
and would seem to indicate high quality of wines. But the 
climate is very warm, somewhat malarious, and it may be 
more adapted to the production of heavy sweet wines and 
brandy, than to the finer light dry wines. 

They are situated in Sacramento County, California, about 
sixteen miles northeast of the city of Sacramento, the capital of 
the State. The Sacramento Valley Railroad runs for three miles 



228 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

through the vineyards, affording three switches for shipping: 
purposes, the central one of which is a regular station with 
depot, post office and express office. It is called " Natoma " 
and here are situated the company's business offices, so that 
no part of the vineyard is over one mile distant from a rail- 
road, which affords connection with the entire railroad sys- 
tem of the State, also with the transcontinental railroad sys- 
tems. The vineyard proper forms the southerly portion of 
the " Rancho Rio de los Americanos " an original Mexican 
grant of about 9,000 acres, duly patented by the United 
States Government, which the Natoma Company purchased 
not many years ago and still owns almost in its entirety. It 
lies on the east bank of the American River for a distance of 
seven miles and includes within its borders the town of Fol- 
som, for many years of the first importance as a placer min- 
ing centre. 

The vineyard plantation nowhere comes down to the 
border of the American River, but is confined to the benches 
or slopes that run back, and merge into, the rolling foot-hills. 
Its elevation ranges variously throughout its extent from 150 
to 300 feet above the sea level, and it is distant from the 
Pacific Ocean about 125 miles in a direct line (westward) 
shut off therefrom by the Coast Range chain of mountains, 
which average from 4,000 to 6,000 feet of elevation ; while 
from the Sierra Nevada range of mountains, which dominate 
all California, and here have an elevation of 8,000 to 12,000 
feet, it is distant about 40 miles. Thus the climate is essen- 
tially an inland one, sheltered from all sea winds and fogs, 
scarcely ever exposing the vineyard to frost damages, but 
visiting it, in the vintage season, with extreme heat (some- 
times as high as 105^^ F in the shade) which powerfully stimu- 
lates the growth of the vines and the development of sachar- 
ine matter in the grapes, thus making the excess of sugar irk 
the grapes a thing to be guarded against in the making of dry 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 229 

wines, and indicating its best specialty as perhaps in the di- 
rection of ports, sherries and other full-bodied types of wines. 

The soil is a red loam, from three to twelve feet in depth, 
underlain by gravel, and it with cobbles, so that it may be 
said to be exceptionally well drained, an important feature, 
for the winter rainfall, doubtless owing to its proximity to the 
Sierras, is very considerable, sometimes even excessive. 

The vineyard is drained by Alder Creek and Buffalo Creek^ 
two water courses which run across it from east to west and 
carry its surplus waters into the American river, which has so 
heavy a fall as to rapidly dispose of all floody waters. The 
lands were heavily timbered with oak trees, many of them of 
great size and very deeply rooted, requiring heavy expendi- 
ture for clearance in preparation for vineyard planting. 

The first vineyard planting of the company was in the year 
1876-7, when about no acres were put out — -seventy acres to 
Muscat of Alexandria and forty acres to Flaming Tokay. The 
"Muscat " was planted with reference' to raisin making, and 
was the earliest considerable planting of that variety for that 
purpose in the State — it may be stated here that it proved 
flourishing and bore vigorously, but nfter trying for three 
years the experiment of raisin making, the company concluded 
that there was too great liability to early fall rains to permit of 
reliable 7f<^/^ <:7/;7>?^^'" of raisins, so they abandoned it as a rai- 
sin vineyard, and have since sold its product to the canners. 
and to the Eastern shippers, finding the latter always willing 
to give a preference to the Natoma product because of size, 
excellent flavor, and special ability to stand distant transpor- 
tation. This initial plantation was followed in 1879-80 with 
seventy acres more; viz., fourty-five acres Zinfandel and 
twenty-five acres more of Flaming Tokay. 

In 1880-81 were put out fifty acres more — of which- 
thirty acres Tokay, ten Emperor, five Seedless Sultana, five 
Black Ferrara. 



230 ORArE CULTURK AND 

In 1 88 1-2 were planted about seventy acres, mostly Flam- 
ing Tokay and Zinfandel — this brought the entire plant up 
to 300 acres, all of which except the Zinfandel was of ship- 
ping varieties of grapes, and consequently this part of the 
company's vineyard has always been known as the " Shipping 
Vineyard," and its products have always commanded a ready 
sale for shipment to the Eastern markets. It lies directly on 
the railroad, at no part distant more than half a mile there- 
from, with a very extensive packing house, so that two en- 
tire cars can be loaded at the same time, and a force of 200 
hands can be accommodated at once, picking, selecting, and 
packing the grapes, which are placed without any jolting of 
wagon transportation, directly on the cars, and are the same 
evening over the Sierras on their way to Eastern markets, at 
least one day ahead of the coast counties. 

The grapes produced in this vineyard are large, firm ber- 
ries, full clusters, and the Tokays are of extraordinary size of 
bunch, brilliancy of color, and durability to stand transporta- 
tion. For the last three years shippers have freely paid 
fifty-five to sixty-five dollars per ton for them on board cars, 
they furnishing packages. 

That shippers are justified in giving preference prices for 
this pack of grapes seems to be established by the Eastern mar- 
ket sales quotations, where the Natoma brand uniformly brings 
a higher price than other packs (E G Chicago, Sept. 5th, '87 
quotes Natoma Tokays sold average $2.85 per crates, while 
other brands were quoted $2@$2.2 5 per crate.) All this 
shipping vineyard is under a complete system of irrigation 
from the company's own canal, which carries a large supply 
of water throughout its entire track and the adjacent coun- 
try, from Salmon Falls on the South Fork of the American 
River, about twenty miles distant from the vineyard. 

Very great judgment and moderation have to be practiced 
in applying this irrigation, but it is the company's experience, 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 231 

that, with such care, a timely drink or two to the vines, in 
the growing season, increases the crop, strengthens and am- 
plifies the foliage (so important in prevention of sunburn to 
clusters of fruit), enlarges the berries, fills out the bunches 
and generally promotes the quality as well as the quantity 
of the yield. 

Many acres of this shipping vineyard have, under this sys- 
tem, yielded seven and eight tons to the acre of shipping 
grapes, but it is safe to say that, taking the average of years 
and of acres, at least four (4) tons to the acre, of selected 
grapes, in crates on the cars, may be counted upon from the 
vineyard for each year, and since the quantity of culls and 
trimmings, not packed, that go to the wine house and distill- 
ery, go very far towards paying all the expenses, it follows 
that this remarkably favored vineyard realizes upwards of 
$200 per acre per year. The Tokays are grown well up from 
the ground, are staked and pruned with medium long canes, 
special attention being paid, in the season of growth, -to 
nipping back the long shoots, so as to make denser the foliage, 
and thus protect the clusters of fruit from that worst foe of 
the Tokay grape, viz : " sunburn." 

In the season of 1882-83 it was realized that so complete a 
demonstration of the fitness of Natoma soil and climate to 
the growth of the grape had been made as to justify a much 
larger utilization of the company's lands for vineyard, and, 
accordingly, the company directed the then manager (one of 
the i)rincipal stockholders as well), Horatio P. Livermore, to 
proceed with the immediate planting of 1000 acres more of 
vineyard. 

Commencing work on November loth, 1882, the land was 
cleared of its timber, thoroughly subsoiled, and planted by 
March 23d, 1883, work which illustrates strikingly the favor- 
able character of the California winter climate, for nowhere 
else would it have been possible, because of probable inter- 



232 (iRAPE CULTURE AND 

ruptions by stormy weather. This season's plant amounted 
to 965 acres, as follows : 

Verdal, 20 acres ; Malaga, Blues White, 5 acres ; Black 
Ferrara, 10 acres; which, being all shipping varieties, were 
planted in extension of the shipping vineyard ; and the fol- 
lowing exclusively Wine varieties, viz: Lenoir, 10 acres; 
Zinfandel, 150 acres; Feher Zagos, 15 acres; Meunier, 15 
acres ; Crabb's Black Burgundy, 50 acres ; Chalosse, 10 acres; 
Columbar, 50 acres ; Grenache, 60 acres ; Chauche Noir, 65 
acres; Sauvignon Verte, 25 acres; Mataro, 75 acres; Mo- 
selle Riesling, 20 acres ; Orleans Riesling, ^ acres ; Franken 
Riesling, 20 acres ; Wests Prolific, 5 acres ; Seedless Sul- 
tana, 10 acres; Piquepoule Gris, 3 acres; Frontignan, 12 
acres ; Trousseau, 50 acres ; Berger, 85 acres ; Malvoisie, 25 
acres ; Carignane, 70 acres ; Caberenet Malbec, 20 acres ; 
Charbonneau, 30 acres ; Folle Blanche, 50 acres. 

This plant w^as made entirely of cuttings, and sufficient 
more cuttings, of the same varieties, were placed in nursery 
for rooting, to similarily plant another 1000 acres in the suc- 
ceeding year, which the Company directed the manager to 
prepare for, the intention being to carry the vineyard up to 
3000 acres. 

Small experimental plantations were also made, for test 
purposes, of some of the American resistant varieties, Herbe- 
iiiont, Rupestris, Cynthiana and Norton's Virginia ; and ex- 
tensive propagating of Lenoir was undertaken for future 
planting. 

The Company having on a tract of its lands, adjoining its 
Orchards, three miles from the vineyard, and near the town of 
Folsom, a plantation of thrifty Mission grape vines, upwards 
of ten years old, it was decided to graft these into the choicest 
wine varieties which could be imported. Accordingly, at very 
considerable expense, there w^re imported from France, Spain, 
Italy, and Portugal, the cuttings of the following varieties, and 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 233 

grafted into upwards of twenty thousand old Mission vines ; 
Carbernet Sauvignon, Carbernet Franc, Merlot, Verdot, Mal- 
bec, Semillion Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Muscadelle de Bor- 
delais, Aramon, Petit Bouschet, Mourastel, Cinsaut, Beclan, 
Poulsard, Serine, Mondeuse,,Clairette Rouge, Pecoui Touar, 
Clairette Blanche, Ugni Blanc, Rousanne, Marsanne, Tannat, 
Petite Syrah, Malmsey Madeira, Tinta Madeira, Verdellho, 
Boa], Muscatel Madeira, Pedro Ximenes, Palomino, Mantuo 
Castellano, Veba, Peruno, Mantuo de Pilas, Bastardo, 
Mourisco Preto, Tinta Coa, Morete, Mourisco Blanco, 
Tinta Amarella, Touriga, Bokador, Yellow Mosler, Pever- 
ella, Rothgipler, Rhulander Grey, Slankamenka, Yellow 
Silk Grape, Steinschiller, Green Sylvaner, Spicy Tramin- 
er. Green Veltliner, White Vernaccio, Waelschriesling, 
Zierfandler, Affenthaler, Kadarka, Lagrein, St. Laurent, 
Marzemino, Portugieser, Refosco, Spanna, Barbera, Terol- 
dego, Wildbacher, Malvasia Bianca, Moscato Rosa, Rosara, 
Aleatico, San Giovetto, San Columbano, Trebbiano, Cana- 
jola Nero, Canajola Bianco. 

Satisfactory success was attained with the most of these 
varieties, and thus was established a store house of viticultu- 
ral wealth for the State, which subsequent vineyard planters 
have largely and profitably availed themselves of. 

It was fortunate for the State that this work could be 
undertaken by a corporation wherein those interested were 
few in number and had ample means, and whose property 
was so favorable, in all respects, to such experimental test 
work, and great benefits will undoubtedly result to the State 
of California therefrom, though, since Mr. Livermore's retire- 
ment from the active managership of the Natoma property 
(which took place in 1885) not all his wise and public spir- 
ited plans have been carried out by his successors. 

Continuing the plantation in the years 1883-4, a decidedly 
unfavorable season was encountered, owing to the protracted 



234 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

delay in the usual winter rains, rendering it impossible to 
commence, seasonably, the preparation of the ground, and 
consequently very much curtailing the planting season, so 
that there was planted but 600 acres of the 1,000 acres pro- 
jected, the varieties being as follows : 

Zinfandel, 100 acres; Columbar, 16 acres; Trousseau, 80 
acres ; Purple Damascus (in shipping vineyard), 5 acres ; 
Mataro, 100 acres ; Chauche Noir, 36 acres; Chalosse, 24 
acres ; Grenache, 65 acres; Berger, 30 acres; Folle Blanche, 
40 acres ; Riparia, 7 acres ; Pedro Ximenes, 4 acres ; Petit 
Bouschet, 3 acres ; Mantuo de Pilas, 2 acres ; Mon- 
deuse, 3 acres; Bastardo, 2 acres; Palomino, 10 acres; 
Tannat, 6 acres ; Roussanne, 5 acres ; Muscadelle de Bor- 
delais, 5 acres ; Petite Syrah, 6 acres ; Carbernet Franc, 3 
acres ; Verdelho, 4 acres ; Tinta Madeira, 4 acres; Malmsey 
Madeira, 4 acres ; Sauvignon Blanc, 3 acres. 

Fractional experimental blocks composed of the varieties 
following : 

Cot a que Rouge, Cot a que verte, Carbernet Sauvignon, 
Semillion Blanc, Pineau D'Aunis, Tinta Madeira, Muscatel 
Spanish ; 33 acres in all. 

There was thus presented an entire planting of upwards of 
1800 acres, of which 200 acres, approximately, were shipping 
and canning varieties, and did not, consequently, interest the 
Wine House, except so far as their cullings, in packing for 
shipment, went to the distillery. Of the strictly wine making 
acreage the prominent factors will be seen to be the following 
varieties: Zinfandel, 350 acres; Crabb's Black Burgundy, 
50 acres ; Chalosse, 34 acres ; Columbar, 66 acres ; Gren- 
ache, 125 acres; Chauche Noir, 100 acres; Sauvignon Verte, 
25; Mataro, 175 acres; Trousseau, 130 acres; Berger, no 
acres; Carignane, 70 acres; Malbeck, 20 acres; Charbon-, 
neau, 30 acres; Folle Blanche, 90 acres; Meunier, 15 acres; 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 235 

and these varieties, therefore, are what the company will have 
for the present to build the reputation of their wine upon. 

In the earlier days of their yield it was not deemed advisa- 
ble to make wine of their product, and it was sold to Messrs. 
Kohler & Van Bergen, of Sacramento, and by them made in- 
to wine with results reported as most satisfactory. 

In this year, however, (1887) the company proposes to 
make its own wine and to that end has erected the first sec- 
tion of its wine house, calculating upon a capacity of three 
hundred thousand gallons, to be increased in succeeding 
years as the increased yield of the vineyard calls for larger ac- 
commodation. 

All these varieties are reported as showing a good crop this 
year, considering the age of the vines, and if they behave as 
well in the wine house as they have in the vineyard, some 
very interesting results may be expected, as each kind will be 
made separately. 

The wine house is situated, not on the railroad track (as is 
generally preferred when there is a railroad) but on a bluff 
nearly in the center of the wine vineyard, half a mile from 
the railroad. 

It is one story high, covering ground space 96x130 feet, 
doubled walled, leaving central air space, is of wood, ceiled 
inside with tongued and grooved lumber, also similarly ceiled 
above to rafters, so as to make practically a double roof. 
Eight ventilators regulate the temperature, which, it is claimed, 
has been found easy to control, so as to keep a temperature 
of 75^^ F in the wine house when upw\ards of 100*^ in the 
shade outside. The roof is divided into two gables and a 
two (2) story tower is built at the end, to carry elevator and 
crusher, which is Heald's latest improved, operated by steam 
engine, and handles forty-five or fifty tons per day of ten hours. 

Under said tower on front line of the wine house runs the 
driveway for loaded wngons to elevator and crusher. Hy- 



236 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

draulic press are also conveniently located under the tower. The 
fermenting room holds forty fermenting tanks, five feet deep 
by nine feet across, capacity 2000 gallons each. There are 
ninety-six storage tanks, eight feet high by six feet across; 
capacity, each 3000 gallons. 

No provision is yet made for permanent storage and matur- 
ing wine for quality, and it may be that delicate wines, 
which it is desired to mature, will be carried in some ware- 
house located on San Francisco Bay, at a point suitable for 
shipping and for maturing wines. 

A duplicate of this wine house will be built, in extension 
of the present one, next year, to accommodate that year's 
increase of product, and similar additions will be made as 
product increases. 

Conveniently adjacent to the wine house, in a building of 
corrugated iron, is a brandy distillery, of Sanders c\: Co.'s 
most approved make, rated to produce, from sound wine, 
804 gallons brandy each, in twenty-four hours, from sour wine, 
574 gallons, from pomace, 251 gallons. Water tank houses 
are attached to both wine houses and distillery, and water 
pipes are carried through both buildings for use and 
fire protection. 

The vineyard is most liberally planned and laid out. 
Each block is marked with its variety at each corner, an ex- 
terior avenue all around it twenty-four feet wide, and a simi- 
lar one through the middle, parallel with the railroad, allow 
four horse teams to be readily turned, when plowing, culti- 
vating, (S:c. The vines are carefully staked with redwood 
stakes, the whole track is very securely fenced with a rabbit- 
proof fence. For convenience of working it is divided into 
sections of 400 acres, each section having its foreman's 
house, barn for work stock, &c. The working is centralized 
at the headquarters house, near wine house, where reside the 
superintendent and accountant with their families. The 



WINE-MAKING IX CALIFORNIA. 237 

buildings are all first class, and admirably adapted for their 
purposes, but are plain and inexpensive. 

Altogether it may safely be said that the Natoma Vineyards 
are a most striking illustration of the rapid advance of the 
viticultural interests in the State of California, and are a last- 
ing credit to the judgment and ability of Horatio P. Liver- 
more, who planned and executed them and who, had he 
continued to manage them, would have undoubtedly worked 
out many results from the extensive importations of foreign 
varieties there grouped together, which would have proved 
of the greatest benefit to the State at large in its viticultural 
interests. 

It is to be regretted in this regard, that the management 
succeeding Mr. Livermore, has failed to carry out his 
plans, has neglected to prosecute many of the interesting 
experiments, so wisely instituted at .Natoma, and has preferred 
to run the property solely for immediate commercial results. 
It is believed that thus have been lost many opportunities of 
great future enhancement of the value of their own property, 
and of concurrent inestimable benefit to the viticultural in- 
terests of California; for never in California were there grouped 
in any one vineyard, so many promising features as at Natoma, 
and no where could they have been so readily and profitably 
worked to a fruitage, had the policy which originated the 
vineyard been maintained. 

One of the important enterprises of this kind are the Sunny 
Slope vineyards, formerly owned by Mr. L. J. Rose, near San 
Gabriel, California, but lately sold to an English syndicate. 
Mr. Rose, Viticultural Commissioner for the Los Angeles dis- 
tricts, is one of the pioneers of grape culture in the State, and 
some of his vineyards are sixty years old, being among the 
oldest in the State, and yet in a flourishing condition. In 
1886, Mr. Rose made, at his extensive wineries and distillery 
225,000 gallons of wine, of which 100,000 were red wines, 



238 (jRArE CULTURE AND 

125,000 white wine, and 60,000 gallons of brandy. I have 
no later dates. His leading varieties are Trousseau, Mission, 
Mataro for red, with some Crabbs Burgundy (Rcfosco) Blaue 
Elbe, Burger and Sauvignon or Pedro Ximenes for white. 

The San Gabriel Wine Company, J. de Barth vShorb, Pres- 
ident and Manager, have also a very large establishment, but 
as I applied to Mr. Shorb for information, and received only 
a very curt reply, that he had no time to give it, I am unable 
to give particulars. 

A very important enterprise is that of Mr. Juan Gallegos, 
at Mission San Jose, Alameda county, also lately sold to a 
company; which, however, purchased only the winery and 
water right, casks, tanks, and 250,000 gallons of wine, at a 
valuation of $300,000 ; Mr. Gallegos reserving the vineyard 
of 550 acres, but agrees to sell the grapes to the Company. 
The winery has a capacity for storing one million five hun- 
dred thousand gallons on first and second floors, while the 
third story has a capacity for fermenting one million gallons. 
The wine house is built of brick and stone, 240x110 feet and 
contain two crushers, two elevators, one hydraulic press, and 
all the necessary apparatus, casks, tanks, etc., besides the 
distillery 35x85, and a frame building for fermenting purposes, 
cooper shop, etc., with abundance of water and water right. 
The vineyard is 550 acres, containing the following varieties. 

RED. 

Zinfandel 435 acres, Mataro 34 acres, Cabernet Sauvignon 
24 acres, Burgundy 16 acres. Trousseau 6 acres, Tannat 5 
acres, Mondeuse 4 acres, Petit Bouschet 4 acres. Total, 
528 acres. 

WHITE. 

Green Riesling 11 acres, Sauvignon Vert (Pedro Ximenes) 
8 acres, Clairette Blanche 3 acres. Total, 22 acres. 

While admiring the enterprise of Mr. Gallegos, in building 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFOKNIA. 2S& 

SO large a winery, and planting so large a vineyard, 1 cannot 
help but warn my readers against such a selection of varieties. 
If they will examine, they will see that there are but twenty- 
two acres of white wine varieties, ninety-three acres of other 
red wine varieties, and 435 acres of Zinfandel. Only imagine 
over three-fourths of the whole crop of one variety, ripening 
at the same time, and as difficult a variety also as the 
Zinfandel. I would not like to be wine maker there, and 
think this is one of the examples " how not to do it" in the 
selection of varieties. 

While these are, perhaps, the largest enterprises of their kind 
in the State, there are hundreds, fully large enough, and 
which were built up from small beginnings by the owners 
themselves. Among these, Napa Valley may claim a promi- 
nent part. Among those who have their own vineyards and 
mainly work up their own grapes are Mr. G. Groezinger, at 
Yountville, who has a vineyard of 450 acres, and made about 
700,000 gallons of wine last year; Mr. H. W. Crabb at Oak- 
ville, vineyard of 350 acres, and a vintage of half a million 
gallons last year. Mr. Crabb is a living example of pluck and 
enterprise. Commencing very small and in very unfavorable 
times, he has now one of the most flourishing vineyards in 
the State, his winery and distillery are a small village by 
themselves; his wines have a reputation not confined to this 
coast, but widely spread over the Eastern States. He has a 
collection of over 300 varieties of grapes, fruiting and growing 
on his own premises, and is so familiar with them that he is 
unquestionably the best authority on grapes in the State. 
Public spirited in the best sense of the word, all the informa- 
tion he has gained is at the service of everyone, and he is al- 
ways prominent wherever the interests of the grape growers 
can be served best. Such men are the benefactors of their race 
and of their calling, and it affords me pleasure to acknowl- 
edge the debt of gratitude we owe them. But I think I also 



le 



240 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

repeat but the wish of his many friends, that he should not 
strain his powers too much, as he must necessarily do, con- 
ducting all his business nearly alone. Such lives are too val- 
uable to be shortened by overwork. Another of our pioneers 
is Mr. Chas. Krug, and although at present rather "under a 
cloud," brought about by his over-sanguine temperament, he 
has done a great deal to advance viticulture to its present 
prominence in Napa County, and his .energy and pluck will 
soon overcome all temporary obstacles; Napa Valley, and es- 
pecially St. Helena, owes him much of its present prosperity 
and prominence. Mr. Wm. Scheffler, of Edge Hill Vine- 
yard, Beringer Bros., Gustave Niebaum, M. M. Estee, are 
among the largest producers of the valley, and Messrs. Ber- 
ringer Bros., whose cellars are excavated from the solid rock, 
and Capt. Niebaum's at Rutherford, designed by Capt. Mc- 
Intyre, strive for the palm of the best cellars in the valley ; 
which is not a small honor when we consider that there are 
over two hundred wine cellars in all within a distance of about 
twenty-five miles, with a capacity of storing 6,000,000 gal- 
lons. The wine makers who purchase grapes and manufac- 
ture them into wine are mostly located at Napa, and among 
these the Uncle Sam Wine Cellars, formerly C. Anduran & 
Co., now, since the death of Mr. Anduran, Carpy & Co. is 
the largest. They manufacture mostly clarets for the New 
Orleans and Southern trade, have a capacity of nearly a mil- 
lion gallons, and will make about 6,000,000 gallons this year. 
They not only purchase grapes from Napa County, but also 
from Solano, Yolo, and Santa Clara. The average price has 
been fifteen dollars per ton, delivered at Napa, for Zinfandel 
and other good varieties; from ten to twelve dollars per ton 
for Mission and Malvasia. G. Migliavacca and sons have al- 
so enlarged their wineries to about 350,000 capacity, and the 
Napa Valley Wine Co., Mr. Briber, manager, may work up 
about the same quantity. Mr. Mathews, of the Lisbon 



WIXE-MAKIXG IX CALIFORXIA. 241 

winer}', manufactures mostly Sherry and Port, and his winery, 
to a large extent built by himself, is a striking evidence of in- 
dividual skill and enterprise. 

Sonoma county is the friendly rival of Napa in the pro- 
duction of fine wines and large enterprises. Mr. J. de Turk, 
the commissioner for that district and also one of the largest 
wine makers, reports the crop of 1886 as 3,500,000 gallons 
made from 25,000 tons of grapes. Mr. de Turk reports this 
season's crop to be about 33 per cent, short of last year, 
ouing to frosts, coulure, and dry weather during vintage. 
Among its largest producers and dealers are J. de Turk, E. 
H. Sheppard, Kohler tS: Frohling, Chauvet, Aguillon at 
Sonoma, and especially the venerable pioneers of grape cult- 
ure, Mr. Craig, J. Gundlach, Julius Dresel. To these last 
especially belongs the honor of making a reputation for 
choice white wines for the State, as well as taking the initia- 
tory steps of combating the phylloxera by the introduction 
of American vines. I venture to say that there are not finer 
white wines to be found in the State than at Gundlach's 
Rhine farm at Sonoma, or the adjoining cellars of J. Dresel 
& Co., nor can a more striking illustration of the complete 
resistance of the Riparia be found than in their vineyards, 
devastated by the insect ten years ago, planted with Riparias 
in 1880, 1881-82, and since grafted with choice varieties. 
They are the pioneers in this, and have done as much for 
the permanent establishment of grape culture, even more, 
than many a one who has planted a thousand acre vineyard. 

Capt. J. H. Drumrnond, of Glen Ellen, has done a great 
work by importing the choicest varieties of vines, trying dif- 
ferent methods of training them, and by his choice wines, 
which have been favorably noticed at every exposition, dem- 
onstrating the fact that California is qualified to rink with 
any part of Europe in the production of choice wines. Mrs. 
Kate F. Warfield and Mrs. Hood have demonstrated that 



242 (iRAPE CULTURE AND 

women are as able to manage vineyards and wine cellars, as 
the majority of men, and altogether old Sonoma has a good 
record to show of individual effort and pluck. 

Santa Clara County can also show many instances of in- 
dividual enterprise. Foremost among them is our lamented 
friend Chas. Le Franc, of whose untimely death I was in- 
formed but a few days ago. I will remember his kindly face 
and the royal welcome at his winery in 1881, which 
greeted the then stranger to this coast, and his fine wines, of 
which we partook at his wine cellars. Both he and Gen. 
Naglee have " gone to their fathers," but ought not to be 
forgotten when the muster roll of the Pioneers in Grape Cult- 
ure is called. Santa Clara has many large vineyards, Capt, 
Merithew, John T. Doyle, J. B. Portal, J. Pfeffer, Paul O. 
Burnsbe and others, and claims to make as good red wines 
as any part of the State. From here, many of the choice 
Bordeaux varieties were first distributed, and the greater 
part of their plantations were of that class. 

In Fresno County, the Barton Estate Company now own 
the vineyard planted by Mr. Barton, although he still retains a 
large part of the stock, and is made the managing director for 
three years. This vineyard contains about 500 acres, but 
it is the intention to purchase and plant 320 acres more. 
Last season's crop was about 270,000 gallons, and about 
300,000 are expected this year. They have fine cellars and 
fermenting houses; and everything is planned on a most ex- 
tensive scale. Captain Eisen has the oldest vineyard there, 
of some 400 acres, and extensive cellars. Mr. Eggers has 
also a large winery, and Lachman & Jacoby are interested in 
another. Fresno produces very heavy wines, and would 
seem to indicate a special adaptation to Angelica, Port and 
Sherry, while I doubt that it will ever produce fine, dry, 
light wines. It also excels in raisins, and in these two 
branches of the grape industry it has a great future. It 



MINE-MAKENG IX CALIFORNIA. 243 

AYOuld lead too far if I enumerated all the individual enter- 
terprises in the State. There are so many that this would be 
an endless task. Wc have enterprising wine men in all sec- 
tions of the State, and it would seem next to impossible to 
enumerate them all. 

But it would not be fair to forget our dealers, who have 
done so much to find and open a market for our wines. 
Among those who were among the first growers of grapes, as 
well as dealing in wines, I will name our departed friend 
Chas. Kohler, who started the oldest winery in Los Angeles, 
and was one of the first to enter the markets. J. Gundlach, 
Julius Dresel, and Chas. Krug all entered the market at an 
early day, and also contributed greatly, by their importation 
of choice foreign varieties, to raise the quality of our product. 

Nor should Col. Agaston Haraszthy and his son Arpad, be 
forgotten. Col. Haraszthy imported perhaps the largest col- 
lection of foreign vines into the State at an early day, and the 
industry is greatly indebted to his efforts. Mr. Crabb has 
opened quite a large Eastern trade, and many of our large 
growers are following these examples. Dreyfuss & Co. have 
large vineyards and wineries near Anaheim, and also one of 
the largest wine houses in San Francisco. G. Eschelbach, 
near Santa Ana, is a large grower and dealer, so are J. de 
Turk at Santa Rosa, J. L. Rose, and the San Gabriel 
Wine Co. 

Of those who have only dealt in wines, without producing 
them, perhaps S. Lachman & Co. of San Francisco, are the 
most prominent. Their new wine house on Brannan Street 
is a monster institution, will easily store a million gallons, 
and is a lasting monument to its builder, Mr. S. Lachman. 
It combines great durability, immense storage capacity, and 
ventilation with convenience for working and handling all 
kinds of wine, which can hardly be excelled anywhere. 

I have tried to 2;ive a faint outline of the individual enter- 



244 (iRAPE CULTURE AND 

prise in California. I am aware that I cannot do justice to 
all, that many were omitted who well deserve a place. But 
my readers must take the will for the deed, and while I have 
tried to give a brief sketch of some embarked in this great 
industry, it was next to impossible to remember all and do 
them justice. This would require a separate volume, and 
an abler, though perhaps no more willing pen than mine; and 
it would be an interesting task indeed to write a history of 
the Pioneers of the Wine Industry, which I hope some of my 
" brethren of the quill" will undertake, before their " deeds 
of peace " have become obsolete, and their memory is 
blotted out by the hand of time. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

CO-OPERATION IN VITICULTURE. 

While I am aware that individual enterprise has already 
w^orked wonders in this, as in every branch of industry on this 
Coast, and no one can be more willing and ready to appre- 
ciate its efforts, yet I believe that still more could be accom- 
plished by co-operation of the grape growers; throughout the 
State as well, as by combined efforts in each community and 
district. 

Our Viticultural societies. State as w^ell as in each District, 
have done a great deal of good already, by their meetings and 
discussion to diffuse knowledge by interchange of opinion, 
comparing samples of wine and grapes, etc. They should be 
attended by every grape grower ; it will be a change from his 
daily routine, and he will return to it with knowledge gained,. 



WINE-MAKING IN CAIJFORXIA. 245 

new ideas awakened, feeling more able to cope with his task, 
and encouraged by the success and example of others. We 
should meet in a friendly feeling of rivalry, with tolerance of 
the views of others, and ready to impart what we know, re- 
ceiving the knowledge of others in return. We have two im- 
portant institutions in common, the State University and its 
Viticultural Department, and the State Board of Viticulture. 
Both have already given us varied information, and are con- 
tinuing to do so. Let us strengthen their hands by ready and 
willing co-operation with them, so that they feel that their 
efforts are appreciated and supported, and are thereby en- 
couraged to further the good work whenever they can. This 
is co-operation in its broadest sense. 

But we should also initiate it in every community, in every 
district and valley of this broad State. Let us form local 
clubs, meet once a month, at least, and exchange ideas. 
There is a still stronger reason for this than for State Societies, 
for all the knowledge gained, all the experiments made by us 
as well as our neighbors, comes directly home to us, and can 
be applied to our own case, in our own vineyards and cellars. 
Let us not have any secrets, but act with the conviction that 
the common good is also the good of the individual ; and 
have no other ambition but that of applying the knowledge 
gained, more practically and forcibly than our neighbors. Let 
the knowledge gained be common property, and the best man 
win in the common race after perfection. 

Still a more intimate system of co-operation can be followed 
by each neighborhood ; where we can unite by purchasing 
labor saving implements in common and for common use ; 
helping one another to prepare our vineyards, by using the 
same teams in turn to break land, subsoil, etc ; and where 
there are several small growers, each unable to build cellars 
and purchase machinery, tanks and casks ; three or tour can 
unite, build a common cellar, of which one of them, perhaps 



246 O^RAPE CULTURE AND 

more skilled than the others, can take charge, and work up 
the product of all. This will lessen the cost to all, they can 
make a better product, more uniform and in larger quantities, 
thus have better chances to sell, and cheaper transportation 
than each could have alone. They will save in purchasing 
stakes, machinery and casks together; in freight, in labor, in 
building, -and again in selling and transportation. In fact, 
they can work more profitably in every way. But to do this, 
there should be perfect harmony, and all jealousy be absorbed in 
the common interest. The advantage gained by thus combin- 
ing work, capital, and knowledge, are so apparent and manifold, 
that they must at once appear to every sensible thinking mind. 

Co-operation can also, and ought to exist between the wine 
maker without means, and the capitalist. Both can combine ; 
the grower in furnishing good wine, and the capitalist to store 
it for him, making advances which will enable the grower to 
work on, and for which the wine offers ample security, until 
it is aged and finished, ready for the world's market. If capital 
is thus combined, they can erect ample buildings, engage a 
competent man as cellar master, offer greater inducements to 
Eastern and foreign dealers, who can secure large lots of uni- 
form wines, and fully developed goods that will please their 
customers, and gain a reputation for our products which they 
could not acquire under the system followed so far. 

These are but a few of the many advantages, which a 
thorough system of co-operation would secure for us. The 
reader will easily see where it can be made applicable to his 
case. 



WINE-MAKIXG IX CALIFORNIA. 24"/ 



CHAPTER XXIII. ' 

WOMAN IX THE V1N?:VARD. 

I have already taken occasion to allude in the preface, to 
the warm interest some ladies have taken in our industry, and 
that some of the best managed vineyards and wine cellars are 
under the control and personal supervision or women. Miss 
Austin, at Fresno, planted and managed for years one of the 
largest and finest raisin vineyards, gained enviable notoriety 
for the excellence of her products, and although now she has 
taken a male partner of her joys and sorrows, I do not doubt 
that her interest and influence is as prominent and beneficial 
as before. What I now wish to place before my readers is 
the wide field of pleasant labor for women which our beloved 
industry opens to them ; a field in which I have no doubt 
that many will find pleasant change and relief ; while to 
thousands of industrious women it would offer a more healthy 
means of gaining an honorable living, than the work in fac- 
tories, the scanty pittance they can earn with their needle at 
sewing and embroidering, or the still more unhealthy work of 
washing and ironing. 

Let me not be understood as advising that our fair friends 
should take the hoe and the plow, or drive the stakes, and do 
the hard work in the vineyard. These are not for them, and 
every true man and American citizen will rejoice with me 
that we live in a country where woman is spared them. But 
there are many of the lighter and more pleasant operations, 
which they can do as well and better even than men, as their 
fingers are more nimble and quick than our more clumsy 
appendages. Let us consider them in succession; and I 



248 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

think my fair friends will be surprised to see how much they 
can do in the vineyard; provided always, that they have not 
more pressing duties at home as wives, mothers, daughters or 
sisters, but wish to earn their living in a pleasant, profitable 
and healthy manner. 

Let us begin in the winter, when the men are pruning the 
vineyard and follow it up to the vintage. 

First, there are cuttings to make from the trimmings, which 
the men can bring in for them, and which they can cut 
easily, with one of the little grape shears described and figured 
in picking grapes. This they can do at or near the farm house 
in pleasant weather, and I have seen them cut and bundle 
from two to three thousand per day. At the usual price paid 
to men, where they make them by the thousand, 50 cts; they 
would earn from $1 to $1.50 per day, and I would not pay 
them a cent less than men, because they are women, and gen- 
erally work cheaper ; but think them entitled to full pay. 
Then comes the tying in the vineyard, when it has been 
pruned, and I am sure that I would be willing to pay them 
full wages, as their deft fingers will do the work quicker, and 
generally more accurate than men. Then comes suckering, 
thinning and pinching the young growth, all easy and pleas- 
ant work; tying of the young growth in grafts, etc., which 
will continue, for several months. If their bright eyes are 
protected by a pair of goggles, they can also do the sulphur- 
ing with a pair of bellows. This will take us nearly to the 
vintage ; and at grape picking I am certain they can do as 
much and as good work as men, and should earn as good 
wages, besides all the grapes they can eat, and a glass of 
wine occasionally to make their eyes more bright, their 
cheeks more rosy, and their steps more elastic than they ever 
will be in the din and impure air of factories, or in the close 
sewing room. 

But many will say : " This may be so, but it is not cus- 



WIXK-MAKING IX CALIFORNIA. 249 

tomary. It is not considered quite stylish, or the proper 
thing for women, to work outdoors." To these I would say, 
" I know of hundreds of estimable ladies who work their own 
flower gardens, water and tend them; and I have never seen 
the finger of reproach pointed at them for doing so, but they 
were, if anything, held in higher esteem by their neighbors 
and friends for thus seeking recreation and pleasure among 
God's choicest gifts. Throw away this mawkish sentiment, 
fallacious as it is; and believe that all honest labor, commen- 
surate to your strength, is ennobling instead of degrading ; 
that " to the pure all things are pure," and certainly there can 
be nothing wrong in light work, under God's own sky, among 
the choicest of His handiwork, and in daily and intimate com- 
munion with Nature, which will naturally "lead you up to 
Nature's God." I hope that my fair readers, (and I am vain 
enough to hope that I will have many) will see in this, not a 
fanciful and unreal theory, but help, by their example and 
advice to make it a practical reality. I would not add one 
single iota of labor to the task of those who already have their 
full share; I would rather lighten it by giving to each good 
housewife a pleasant companion and friend, who can help her 
occasionally, and spend her spare time in the vineyard as in- 
dicated ; and furnish pleasant and light employment to thou- 
sands, who are now confined in the cities, and inadequately 
paid for work that will eventually ruin their constitution. I 
want to bring them to a healthier atmosphere, morally and 
physically, than they now breathe. And I am confident that 
my lady friends, with their usual good sense, will aid in the 
good work. 



250 GllAPE CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

COST OF ESTABLISHING A VINEYARD, AND ITS PROBABLE 

RETURNS. 

That this must, of necessity, vary very much in different 
sections of the State, is apparent to anyone at once. We 
can, however, make a more safe calculation now, when wine 
and grapes are so low that they can hardly get any lower ; 
than a few years ago, when the prices ruled high, and wine 
makers were outbidding each other, bringing prices up to an 
unnatural height, and when prices of wines declined, they 
must necessarily loose. 

We will take for our estimate a raw piece of land, w^hich 
has to be cleared, and which can be boup;ht for $50 per acre 
in one of the northern counties ; 

Clearing land - $25.00 

Preparing land, plowing, harrowing and rolling 5.00 

600 vines, Riparias or Californicas 10.00 

Marking and planting 5.00 

Cultivation, first year 10.00 

" second year , 15.00 

Grafting, including cost of scions 5.00 

Staking and tying : 15.00 

Cultivation and priming, third year. 20.00 

Total $110.00 

The fourth year, if the soil is of ordinary fertility, the vine- 
yard ought to pay for cultivating and even more. We will 
make our estimate of returns from the fifth year, when it 
ought to be in full bearing, and the following years would be 
about the same average : 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 251 

Five tons of grapes at |12 per ton SGO.OO 

Deduct from this for labor 120.00 

Interest on land and capital invested 15.00 

35.00 

Net profit 5^25.00 

This, as remarked before, is subject to many variations, ac- 
cording to cost of land, cost of clearing and cultivating, 
prices realized for grapes, etc. But it may be called a fair 
average; and the grapes estimated as low as good grapes can 
be sold and raised. The present prospects are that they will 
be from $12 to $15 this season in Napa, red grapes bringing 
the first, white grapes the latter price, and even higher. In 
other sections, where grapes are still cheaper, they will also 
produce more to the acre. These are, so I think, bottom 
prices. If the condensed must industry steps in to make 
a market for our red wine grapes, and there are more wine 
storage houses established, it will relieve the present glut, and 
we will receive better paying prices again. But even as it is, 
it is better returns on the investment of capital than wheat or 
grain in general will furnish, and far better than most mercan- 
tile ventures will bring. 

Raisin making and table grapes pay much better at present 
than raising wine grapes. Yet a few years ago, raisin makers 
were down hearted on account of coulure, stagnation in the 
market, and low prices. Since they improved the quality of 
their goods, and freight to the East have been reduced, bet- 
ter modes of packing prevail; both raisin men and the ship- 
pers of table grapes feel jubilant, and see their prospects 
brightening every day. So it will be with the wine interest. 
The present depression is due in a large measure to the infer- 
ior quality of the wines sent out. The wine of 1884 was very 
light, and it was followed by the crop of 1885, which was to 
a large extent, badly fermented ; but both were bought and 
rushed East in spring of 1886, during the time of low freight, 



252 . GRAPE CULTURE AND 

and the markec glutted with inferior wines, which did not pay 
the shipper, and disgusted the consumer. The crop of 1886 
is one of the best in quality ever made in the State. It is a 
wine that will improve with age, and make a name for our 
product. The inferior varieties are disappearing, and new 
vineyards of better varieties taking their place. Our people 
are learning fast, and w^e may look for improvement in every re- 
spect, quality of product, facilities for shipping, extended 
markets by new methods; and I think 1 may safely predict a 
change for the better. 

(Since the above was written, the vintage has passed, and 
prices ruled higher than anticipated, from $15 to 18 per ton, 
while the prospects are good for a rapid sale of wine at good 
prices.) 



PA^RT II. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER 1. 

MAKING WINE. 

It will hardly be expected that I should enter into the 
practices and secrets of the wine dealer and chemist, in a 
book which only aims to be the guide of the cultivator, and to 
render grape culture and wine making easy and practicable 
for the masses. I shall therefore confine myself mostly to 
the manufacture of light still wines, and try to demonstrate, in 
a simple and plain manner, the rules and practices which are 
necessary for success in this branch. I have made but little 
sweet wine, nor do I like it; nor do I know much of sparkling 
wines or brandy. But wine making proper, in relation to 
still wines, although a very simple art, yet is governed by 
certain rules which can not be infringed with impunity; any 
man with sound common sense can become a successful wine 
maker if he observes them, and also uses that common sense 
to make due allowance for variations in product, seasons, etc. 
I shall be as concise and clear as possible; and hope that any 
one, by following out my directions, will be able to make a 
good, sound, drinkable and saleable wine, which will be 
healthy and palatable for him and those who may buy it. My 
instructions will be calculated more to benefit the smaller 
cultivators, who work from ten to fifty acres of vineyard, than 
those who cultivate from loo to thousands of acres. These 
can generally afford to build costly wineries, and employ the 
most intelligent labor, which will certainly be wise economy 
for them. Still the principles governing wine making remain 
the same, and 1 also hope to interest them, as they may find 
some suggestions which they also can put to [:ractical use. 

17 



250 GRAPE CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER II. 

THE CELLAR ! 

Before making the wine, room should be provided to keep it. 
This, in making a small quantity, need not be an elaborate 
structure; in fact a common house cellar, which can be kept 
at a temperature not exceeding 80 in summer, will answer, if 
only a few casks are to be made. The main consideration is 
always to have the wine well fermented and tli07vi/ghly clear 
the first winter; if this is the case, it will keep almost any 
where in our temperate climate where we have no severe 
cold in winter, and the nights are generally cool in summer. 
I have seen as good wines stored in simple holes in the 
ground, as have come out of the finest cellars. But if you 
want to follow it as a permanent business, and make from 
10,000 to 30,000 gallons annually, with storage room to keep 
at least a part of every season's crop, you had better erect 
good, substantial buildings; whether of stone, brick or w^ood, 
is immaterial, and may be governed by the facility you have 
of obtaining the material. Double walls of redwood are 
about as durable as stone or brick, at least durable enough to 
last a lifetime ; the main point is that the lower story at least, 
in which you aim to store your wine, should keep a fairly 
even temperature, not varying much from 70^, 65° is still 
better. At the Talcoa Vineyards, near Napa, which I 
managed for over five years, we had a building with a capa- 
city of 60,000 gallons, which answered all purposes admirably, 
and in which I never had a case of imperfect fermentation; I 
will describe it here, and anyone can change the dimensions 
to suit his wants. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 257 

The building is two stories and a half high. It is built of 
stone, forty by sixty feet ; the lower story is almost entirely 
under ground and twelve feet high; not arched, but with a 
double floor above, which is supported by a double row of 
strong wooden pillars, twelve feet from the wall. This gives 
room for four rows of two thousand gallon casks, one on each 
side, and two in the middle, with sufficient room between for 
pumping and racking, handling of casks for transportation, 
etc. It has two rows of six casks on each side, one row of 
five casks across at the further end, and two rows of five 
casks each in the middle, making a capacity of twenty-seven 
thousand gallons, to which can be easily added five thousand 
more by putting smaller casks on top. It is built into the 
hill, with a double door, even with the ground below, towards 
the northeast. The second story has the same dimensions, 
but is above the ground, with its entrance from the south- 
west j also double doors, and is used as a fermenting room. 
It is only ten feet high, however, and contains two rows of 
casks of one thousand gallons each in the middle, with 
smaller casks and fermenting tanks on each side; also with a 
double floor, supported by wooden pillars above. The third 
story, or rather half story, contains the wine making appara- 
tus, stemmer, crusher and two presses, a few tanks for fer- 
menting white wines in smaller quantities ; boxes and other 
implements used in wine making, and can also be used as a 
shop in rainy days, to make cuttings, etc. It also has double 
doors towards the southwest, and the grapes are handed over 
a platform from the wagon, from which the approach is even 
with the floor of the second story. Of course a steam stem- 
mer and crusher could be put up in the upper story, and the 
grapes run up by an elevator, if desired. All the stories are 
connected by holes, through which hose can be run from the 
press or any of the tanks or casks above, into the casks below; 
and racking from the fermenting vats in third story, to the 



258 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

casks in the second, as also from the second story to the firsts 
can be done without pumping or handling, simply by gravity;, 
also from the presses to the casks below, thus saving a great 
deal of labor. A staircase connects second and third floors 
inside. The lower cellar keeps a temperature of about 60^ 
F. summer and winter, the second story varies from 55° to 
75^, mean temperature about 70". As stated before, I have 
not had a single case of imperfect fermentation there for five 
years, and therefore consider this, for our latitude and cli- 
mate, as near perfect as can be, to make good,, sound wines. 
But, while it should be the ultimate aim and object for 
every grape growler to make his own wine, let me add a word 
of caution here to those who, like myself, are not blessed with 
abundant means. Do not build your cellar and make wine 
before you are able to pay for it. To build a cellar, and get 
casks, press and all the necessary utensils, generally costs 
more than the most minute calculation will show, and it is 
not safe to run into debt, when you are not fully sure, that 
you can sell your wine promptly at fair prices and thus pay 
them off. I have seen too many failures, resulting from ap- 
parently safe calculations, to advise you to burden yourself 
with debts, to secure temporary advantages. Rather sell 
your crop of grapes to the next winery, as long as you can 
obtain paying prices ; and then, when you have the money 
laid by, build a cellar and get casks according to your means, 
to which you can add as you become able to do so. You: 
can make a few casks for your own use, and store them in a 
house cellar, or shed even, in our temperate climate ; but do 
not speculate rashly, and involve yourself beyond your depth, 
on seemingly safe calculations and inviting probabilities. 
Your crop may fall below your estimation, or you may not 
find ready sale for your wine at prices that will pay ; and the 
result of a good many such ventures has been, that the banks 
owmed the cellars and the vineyards and homesteads also, be- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 259 

fore the matter was finally arranged. Go slow, labor patient- 
ly and persistently ; and you will not fail to reap your reward; 
even if it takes a few years longer ; your mind will not be 
burdened by the consciousness of debts, and your work will 
thrive and progress better, as long as you are free from embar- 
rassment of' that kind. 



CHAPTER III. 

WINE MAKING APPARATUS. 

Casks. After the cellar is built, the next thing in order 
^\\\\ be to obtain the necessary casks. We want to be ready 
in time for the vintage, so that everything can run smoothly 
and without hinderance then. Fortunately we have the 
months of July and August here, during which there is not 
much to do in the vineyard, and they can mostly be devoted 
to work of this kind. Casks of all dimensions are now made 
in the State from well seasoned Eastern oak wood, and these 
will be the best for permanent use. Large casks save room, 
and are the most economical and lasting; though smaller 
casks or puncheons will ferment quicker and more thoroughly. 
It is evident that a thousand gallon cask is filled and racked 
with less time and less labor, than six puncheons of i6o gal- 
lons each, while it also takes less room. Therefore it will be 
advisable to have large casks for the larger quantities, your 
leading varieties ; and have smaller ones for your choicer kind 
and smaller quantities. Larg3 casks cost now from 7 to lo 
cents per gallon, while common puncheons cost about 61^ 
cts. The former are provided with doors or manheads, to 



260 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

facilitate washing and cleaning, so that a man can slip intO' 
them, and brush and rinse them from the inside. Oblong 
casks save room, and are also easier cleaned than round. 
But we also want frames to lay our casks upon. These can 
be made from stout scantlings 4-6 inch, the first to be laid 
2/^ feet from the wall, the second 21^ feet apart from it, and 
supported by either cross pieces of timber, or better still, pil- 
lars of stone every six feet. The inside scantling should be 
two inches lower than the^one next to the wall, so as to give 
the cask a slight inclination forward. This will facilitate 
racking and cleaning. If there is a concrete or cemented 
floor in the cellar, it will also be cleanlier and better. 

On these scantlings we lay our casks, giving room to the 
first one sufficient for a man to pass between the wall and 
cask. There should also be room enough behind the casks, 
to allow frequent inspection, lifting in racking, etc. There 
also should be a space of six inches between the casks, so that 
each one can be handled and moved independently from the 
other. For smaller casks, the layers of scantling can of 
course be nearer to each other. But all should be elevated 
about eighteen inches from the ground floor, to admit of the 
free use of utensils in racking. Before the casks are placed,, 
especially if new, they should be made laine green, as the gen- 
eral term is, that is the woody taste contained in the oak, 
should be drawn out. Soaking with cold water, and steaming 
afterwards, is generally sufficient in smaller ones; but in large, 
heavy casks, it is well to make some fresh lime water after 
rinsing with cold water, by adding two pounds of lime to four 
gallons of water; throwing the lime in first, then pouring in 
the water, and by rolling and shaking, bring it into contact 
with every part of the cask. This is about the proportion for 
a thousand gallon cask. Then wash clean, emptying out all 
the lime water, and the cask will be ready for use. Sal Soda. 
is also used for the same purpose, and is equally good. 



WINE-MAKIXU IN CALIFORNIA. 



261 



Tanks. For fermenting, we want tanks, made from red- 
wood, which can also be used for storing wine at an emergency. 
In fact, many wineries in the State use them altogether, as 
their cost per gallon is much less, only about 33^ cts. But 
they are more apt to leak than oak casks, and the wastage will 
soon amount to about the same, or run beyond it. Besides 
wine is apt to acquire a peculiar taste from them, which is not 
desirable. For fermenting, they should be rather wide and 
low, than high and narrow, as it affords better facilities for 
stirring, of which I shall treat further on, and the mash does 
not become so hot. About three and one-half or four feet 
high, by five feet wide, is a convenient size. They should be 
of one and one-half inch lumber, smooth and without knot, 
and also have a top with a manhole, which can be put in 
when desired. These are placed upright, on a similar frame 
of scantlings as the casks, in the fermenting room. 

Stemvier. This is a necessary implement, and consists of a 
strong wire screen, (Fig. 26) which can also however be made 




Fig. 2o. 
of wood. Here mostly strong galvanized wire is used, a box 



202 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

of grapes is poured in, and rubbed back and forth, by a pecu- 
liar swinging motion of the two men who work it; the berries 
are rubbed off and fall into the frame below, from which they 
pass into the crusher; the stems remain, and are emptied out 
from time to time. 

The Crusher. As generally employed, consists of two 
wooden rollers, either plain or grooved, and about eight inches 
diameter, so geared with cog wheels that they will run against 
each other, drawing the crushed grapes from the hopper above, 
as shown in Fig, 27. They are turned by a crank, and set 
above a wooden trough, into which the 
crushed berries fall, and are emptied 
into the press or fermenting vat. The 
rollers are so adjusted with screws, that 
they can be set so the skin of the ber- 
ries is broken, but not the seeds; as 
they impart a disagreeable taste to the 
'iG. 27- wine. 

The Press. This can be made on the old-fashioned lever 
plan, and although rather inconvenient in handling, it is 
really a good press, as it acts continuously. For this purpose 
a hole is morticed into a tree, or if it is strong enough, the 
end of the lever may be fastened to the cellar. A long beam, 
say twenty feet, is then chosen for the lever, which by a 
strong bolt is fastened in the hole, so that it can move up and 
down freely. A bottom for the press is then made close to 
the end of the lever, where it is fastened to the tree; constructed 
of strong two-inch planed lumber, grooved so as to give the 
juice a chance 10 run off, and furnished with a two-inch rim, 
to keep the juice from running over. One side is slightly 
declined, and a spout of tin of say two inches wide, fastened 
to a hole in the rim, wheri the juice can run out, into a tub. 
We now- make a box, say 3% feet square, of strong two-inch 




WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 



263 



timber, and perforated with half inch holes for the juice to run 
out. This box can be of any desired height, or it can be 
made in sections, and enclosed with a frame to give it more 
strength. Three to four feet is about the usual height. A 
strong board, also perforated, to fit into the box as a follower, 
completes the arrangement. When the box is filled with the 
crushed grapes, the follower is put on, some cross beams if 
necessary; and the lever, which can be u'orked up and down 
at the other end with a rope and pully. If not found heavy 
enough, it can be weighted with stone, and presses all the 
time. This is very simple, and any ordinary mechanic or 
" handy man " can make it. 

There are of course, many other presses. One of the best, 
of which the smallest size is sufficient to work up from lo to 
20,000 gallons, is the California Wine Press, which can be had 
at Woodin e\: Little, San Francisco. 

Smaller Implenieiits. We want a good many smaller 
implements, among which are tubs, to be used for the press 
to receive the juice; faucets of brass with threads cut on the 
end to attach hose; hose to conduct the must from the press 
to the casks, which should be inch and a half diameter out- 
side measure; pails and cans, the last made of strong tin, to 
hold about three gallons, narrower at top than bottom, and 
with a rim a foot below; and a strong wooden funnell, Fig. 29, 

oblong, with a copper pipe in 
the bottom at the narrowest 
end, and two short wooden 
legs, so that it will set firmly 
on the cask, with a capacity of 




four to five gallons. The sac- 
testing tube 



harometer and 

have been already referred to, 

and are indispensable to work 



Fk4. 29. 



204 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



imderstandingly. The acidimeter, Fig. 30, although useful 

at times, is seldom 
necessary here, as 
our musts, when they 
have from 22 to 26 
Balling, have no ex- 
cess of acids, and 
they should not be 
lighter to make good 
wine. Besides, it is 
more difficult to use 
the acidimeter prop- 
erly, as it can only 
show the acids cor- 
"rectly when fermen- 
tation has drawn 
them from the skins 
land flesh, therefore 
1^ in i n e X p erienced 
A.hands generally does 
m ore h a r m than 
Fk;. ;](). good. We also want 

a strong pestle or board, say nine inches in diameter, with a 
five foot handle attached, to stir the pomace in the ferment- 
ing vat. 

This, of course, refers only to small establishments, who 
want to do the work by hand. Those who intend to work 
on a larger scale, by steam or water power, will do best to get 
the combined stemmer and crusher, as wrll as other machin- 
ery, from L. Heald, Crockett, Contra Costa Co., who makes 
a specialty of wine making machinery, presses, etc., and 
whose machinery is used by nearly all the large wineries in 
the State. If they will state their wants and the extent of 
their operations, he will furnish just what they want. 




WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 265' 



CHAPTER IV. 

MAKING DRY WINES. 

As I have already given directions for picking the grapes^ 
and the proper time and manner when to do so, we are now 
ready to make our wine, as soon as our apparatus is all clean 
and in working order. Dry wines may be divided into 
three classes, all requiring different treatment, and I shall 
consider them in succession. 

(a) WHITE WINES PROPER. 

This comprises all wines made from grapes which contain 
none or very little coloring matter, in short, all wines re- 
sembling Hocks or Sauternes, the two best known types of 
German and French white wines. Let us define these two 
classes a little closer. 

Hocks we call the wines from the Rhine, the Moselle, the 
Palatinate, and other German and Austrian provinces, which 
are characterized by their light yellow or greenish color, 
sprightliness and agreeable acidity, as well as their agreeable 
bouquet. The majority of them are light rather than heavy, 
and it is considered a fair proportion of alcohol if they con- 
tain eight per cent. They are preeminently the wines to 
"make glad the heart of man," the main ingredients of the 
famed "Maitrank," which have furnished the inspiration for 
the innumerable songs in their praise for which the "Vater- 
land" is famous, and which have given the Rhine its fame as 
the most poetic and romantic stream on earth. 

Sauternes are generally fuller, softer, and smoother than 
Hocks, and many of them are slightly sweet. The far-famed 
Chateau Yquem is the representative of that class, the noblest 



266 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

white wine which France produces. But while France makes 
some very choice white wines, her fame was mostly gained 
by her red wines and clarets. We may therefore safely assert 
that the French are preeminently a claret producing and con- 
suming nation, and the Germans the consumers of white 
wines. 

Of the Hock type we have the Riesling family, including 
Chauche Gris, Green Hungarian, Traminer, White Elben, 
Yellow Mosler, and for a lighter type of Moselle wines, the 
Gutedel and Burger. 

Of the Sauterne type, including the hermitage wines, Mar- 
sanne, Roussanne, Sauvignon Blanc, Semillion, Muscadelle de 
Bordelais, Pedro Ximenes, (generally called Sauvignon Vert). 

The Clairette Blanche, although French, and the Herbe- 
mont, American, I should class with the Hock varieties, on 
account of their sprightliness, pleasant acidity and bouquet. 

For wines developing a sherry type naturally, Palomino and 
Sultana. It will naturally be inferred that only such varieties 
should be blended or mixed together as belong to each type. 

When our grapes are stemmed and crushed, they should 
either be pressed at once, if the light, greenish color now in 
vogue is desired, and a very smooth delicate wine ; or if a 
wine of golden yellow color is the preference, they may be put 
into the fermenting vat, and allowed to remain over night, 
say twelve hours, on the skins. This will give the wine a 
deeper color and more flavor and character, though not so 
smooth and agreeable ; I know that I come into conflict here 
with Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is generally considered au- 
thority, and discourses on fermentation at every meeting. He 
advises to leave them in the fermenting vat for three or four 
days; in short, treat white wines about as red wines should be 
treated. I do not pretend to be an authority, but I also do 
not acknowledge any ; and my practice has taught me that 
white wines, thus treated, loose all that delicacy, smoothness 




WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 267 

and sprightliness which to me constitute their chief merit, and 
become rough and acid. But my readers can easily satisfy 
themselves, by trying both ; than follow the method which 
suits their taste best, and gives them the most saleable wine. 
The must can be run into the casks from the press at once. 
Of course these should be "wine green" beforehand ; if new, 
they should be made so as indicated before; if old, and they 
have contained wine before, they should be made perfectly 
clean and sweet by thorough washing. The rinsing chain, 
(Fig. 31) is a good implement for loosening any impurities, 
and the smell will indicate whether they are 
clean and sweet. If at all mouldy they should 
l^e rinsed with lime water or sal soda, and if 
they lay empty for several days, they should be 
sulphured as soon as dry, and the bung drove 
Fig. 31. i" tight. It will be found very useful to burn 
some good pure grape brandy in them, which will fumigate 
them thoroughly. Take about a quart to a thousand gallon 
cask, pour it in at the bung, and ignite by dropping a burning 
match into the brandy from above. As soon as the brandy 
is burning well, lay a cloth over the bung; but do not drive 
in the bung until it is all burned, as it may burst or injure the 
cask. This will penetrate the wood deep enough to benefit 
the must, and is much better than heavy sulphuring. If you 
do sulphur, rinse the cask before filling, to take out the smell 
and taste, which the must easily acquires, and which is also 
deleterious to active fermentation. Fresh brandy or whiskey 
casks may be used for fermenting wines, provided there are 
no other flavorings used in the liquor, such as gin, chervil, 
anisette, etc. But they will not do for fermented wines, or 
for racking. The quantity of brandy to be used will of course 
correspond to the size of the cask. Fill your casks with the 
must to within about eight inches of the top, to prevent its 
running over, and divide the pressing which runs last, equally 



268 GRArE CULTURE AND 

among them, if you have several to All, if you want to make 
a uniform wine. Some prefer to have the first run by itself, 
and fill the pressed wine into a separate cask. The first will 
of course make the most delicate wine, while the last will be 
more harsh and rough, from the tannin and acid extracted 
from the skins and seeds. But this tannin is generally needed 
to clear the wine and make it durable, and if pressed as soon 
as indicated, there will not be an excess of it. The bunghole 
may then be covered by a fresh grape leaf, to keep insects or 
dust from entering, and the bung, or a small sack with clean 
sand laid on, to keep it there until the wine has become quiet. 
To fill up, some must of the same kind should be filled into a 
smaller cask ; and when violent fermentation is over, say in 
five or six days, they can be filled up to the bunghole. As 
soon as fermentation is over, which you can tell by holding 
your ear above the bunghole, by the absence of the hissing 
and seething noise which accompanies fermentation, the bung 
can be put in, at first lightly, and after a few days, it can be 
drove in tight. 

A great improvement on the solid bungs for the manage- 
ment of young wines is the perforated bung. For this, good 
spruce, maple or ash bungs are used, made about four inches 
long, tapering gradually. A hole with a half inch or three- 
eighths augur is then bored through them the whole length,, 
and filled with cotton steeped in salicylic acid, pressed to- 
gether solidly. This gives enough vent to the young wine, 
yet will act as a filter to the air when the wine becomes quiet 
and fermentation ceases. They can also be used for casks 
and barrels that are kept "on tap" as the phrase is, for a short 
time; and though 1 do not ad\ise their use for an unlimited 
length of time, yet they are a better preservative than solid 
bungs, which can hardly be closed enough to prevent all access 
of air. In this case the air is freed from all impurities, and 
will not vitiate the wine. To young wines, it prevents the ac- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 269 

cess of impure air, yet gives them sufficient vent to finish fer- 
mentation completely. 

The treatment of all these varieties is about the same in 
the first stages of their development, if they are to be dry, 
light wines. The German Muscateller or Frontignan can 
also be made into a dry wine in the same way, but it is best to 
press it immediately in all cases, as the flavor of the grape is 
naturally strong, and will be developed to an unpleasant 
degree by fermentation on the skins. 

(^.) MAKING WHITE WINES FROM BLACK GRAPES. 

This is often advisable, and especially now, when white 
wines sell so much more rapidly, and at higher prices than 
reds. We have some red varieties however, the so-called 
" coloring grapes," which have red juice, and which therefore 
cannot be used for white wine. These are the Lenoir, 
Teinturier, Gamay Teinturier, Pied de Perdrix, Petit Bous- 
chet, and perhaps a few others. In fact, anything of which 
the juice runs red, when you squeeze a berry between your 
fingers, cannot be used for white 7vme. But when a vintner 
has Mission and Malvasia yet, he certainly ought to make as 
much white wine from them as he can, and either throw away 
the pomace or use it for distillation or port. They make a 
fair white wine, but the dry red wine made from them, 
deteriorates with age, and never is very good. But there are 
many red wine grapes, which have all the color in the skins, 
and which, when pressed immediately and lightly, will make 
a nice white wine from the first run, when the mark or 
pomace, which of course contains a good deal of juice yet, 
and all the coloring matter and tannin, can be put into the 
fermenting vat, either with other red grapes, or fermented 
alone. Of course, the first run is the best juice, and will 
make the smoothest wine ; but this is not generally sought 
for in clarets; in fact, the trade has so far demanded deep 
color, astringency and flavor, all of which would be increased 



270 . GRAPE CULTURE AND 

by taking off the first run immediately after crushing ; and 
fermenting the remainder for live or six days. 

Among the grapes which make cJioice white wines if pressed 
lightly are Chauche Noir, Meunier and Carignane ; the Zin- 
fandel, Blaue Elben, Mataro, Beclan, Grosse Blaue, 
Mondeuse and Petit Syrah can all be utilized in this way, and 
make very nice wine. The Herbemont should also be treated 
in this way, as well as the Rulander and they make delightful 
w'hite wine. Press very light, and quit pressing as soon as 
the juice assumes a red tinge, using the remainder for red 
wine. Treat the " first run " just as the white wine proper, 
and you can thus increase the quantity of white wine, if it 
should be desirable. If you have fresh pomace at same time, 
of Marsanne, Riesling or any of the choice Sauterne or Hock 
varieties, and will ferment your must from red grapes on them 
for a single night, you will find that you can give it the char- 
acter of that special variety, and thus utilize your product 
much better. I have thus fermented white Malvasia on 
Marsanne and Pedro Ximenes pomace, which would pass for 
very fair Hermitage, although of course, it could not be 
called a " grand vin." There is a wide field of useful experi- 
ment open for us in this direction, and it certainly is legiti- 
mate blending, the highest art in viticulture. It seems to 
me there is a more paying field in that direction than to try 
to improve and ameliorate our clarets by cutting them with 
light white wines, to make them acceptable to the public 
taste. 

(c) RED WINES. 

In making red wine, vve have of course a different object in 
view. In white wines, we desire sprightliness, delicacy, 
smoothness and bouquet; in red wines, we want good color, 
and astringency mainly, and in this State, even the fine bou- 
quet, which ougbt to characterize good red, as well as white 
wine, has often been sacrificed to attain the two first, and the 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 271 

mellowness which a good red wine ought also to have, is sel- 
dom found. While I fully recognize the importance of good 
color and astringency in red wines, I hope to show my readers 
how they can make them with a sufficiency of these, and also 
have them of good bouquet and mellow. The general practice 
in this Slate has been formerly, to crush the grapes, put them 
into six feet high fermenting tanks, and then let them work 
out their own salvation. I have often been in wineries that 
looked more like slaughter houses, with the purple juice bub- 
bling over the top, a crust of a foot thick had formed on top, 
which had become dry and mouldy, was swarming with vine- 
gar flies, and in many cases, maggots were crawling around 
lively. When the fermentation was over, the whole mass was 
often left for a week yet, as the manipulator thought to gain for 
it color and tannin, and become more saleable thereby. That 
under such treatment decomposition and acidification had 
often set in, can hardly surprise any one. Yet these were 
often, and even in the majority of cases, so called " old skill- 
ful wine makers " from France or Italy, who felt insulted if 
their practice, which their fathers and grandfathers had fol- 
lowed before them, was not considered perfect. If told that 
five days of thorough fermentation would extract all the color 
and tannin, and make a deeper colored and more lively wine 
than theirs, they would not believe it, had it been demonstrat- 
ed before their eves. I know of large establishments, even 
now, which make from 200,000 to half a million of gallons of 
Claret every year, who keep their fermenting rooms at such a 
temperature at night, that suffocated rats are strewn about the 
floor in the morning. And yet the wine made under such 
conditions is sent all over the Country as " California Claret." 
Is it a wonder that it has cr bad name and reputation ? 

Most of the clarets are now fermented under so called 
"false" or perforated tops; that is, after the crushed grapes are 
put in, a perforated top which fits on a rim or cleats nailed to 

18 



272 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

the inside of the tank, is put over them, so that the juice 
comes through the holes and stands above the mash and the 
top fastened there. This is better than the first method, but 
yet admits of great improvement. Naturally, fermentation 
commences above, where the fluid comes into contact with 
the air, slowly progresses downward, so that when the top has 
already passed through fermentation, and become bitter, it is 
still sweet below; and unless the lower fluid is drawn off and 
poured on above, there is a great difference between the top 
and bottom in its development, and it is very difficult to tell 
when it is ready for pressing. 

My method, by which I have always made good clarets, 
and had them ready for the press within five or six days, is 
as follows : 

After the grapes are crushed, I fill them into the ferment- 
ing vat. I prefer rather shallow and wide to the deep and 
narrow ones which have been in use generally, say four feet 
high by five feet wide. A small screen of wire should be 
fastened over the faucet hole to keep out the skins and stems 
if any are left, and to let the liquid run off clear. Then 
fill your tanks to about a foot from the top, so that they will 
not run over in fermenting, and stir the mass at least three 
times a day vvhile fermenting, with a wooden pestle made for 
the purpose, taking care that the whole mass is well mixed, 
and the skins rising to the surface are submerged again, so that 
no acetification can set in. This is a process of aerating, by 
which the skins which have been exposed to the air are 
again submerged and keep up a lively fermentation ; but if 
the temperature of the fermenting room does not rise above 
75 or 80°, as it ought not to do, the temperature of the 
mash will not rise above 90^. It will be well, should fer- 
mentation get violent above, to test the liquid below, at the 
bottom of the vat, and if that should be much below the 
temperature at top, to draw out some by the faucet below, 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 273 

and pour it on top. This will equalize and aerate the whole, 
and within five days we generally find that all the sweetness 
has disappeared. The test should be taken from the bottom 
of the vat, and if that does not show any sweetness we can 
depend upon the whole being ready for the press. It is a 
mistaken idea to think that the must will gain any color or 
tannin after it has become cool and quiet, for the color will 
remain fixed, better after the cooking process (and fermenta- 
tion is nothing else) has subsided. If the wine (and it has 
gone into the vinous state as soon as fermentation has done 
its work) remains any longer on the skins, it simply loses 
all the freshness, and fruity flavor which are so necessary; in 
fact constitute its chief value to the buyer. 

To comprehend this, we only need to look a little closer 
at the nature of fermentation, and what it will accomplish. 
During the process, carbonic acid gas escapes all the time, 
rising in bubbles to the surface, and if the mass is stirred and 
kept submerged, no acetification can take place. But as 
soon as it has become quiet this ceases; the surface is still, 
no carbonic gas escapes, and the exposure to the air is bound 
to affect the young wine to its positive injury. To test this, 
only leave it quiet for one or two days, and you will see 
mould appear on its surface, that sure sign of putrefaction 
and decomposition. It robs the young wine of all that liveli- 
ness and fine aromatic properties it ought to possess, and 
which we find developed in our white wines to a much 
higher degree than in the red, just because it is not exposed 
to this putrefaction process. Yet we find old wine makers 
advocating the practice of leaving the wine on the skins long 
after fermentation has ceased, to gain color and tannin, as 
they suppose; while it accomplishes just the contrary; for the 
exposure to the air after fermentation has the tendency to de- 
crease the color. And even if this were not the case, I 
would rather have a wine with a trifle less color, and more 



274 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

life and bouquet, than vice versa. The best and choicest 
French and European clarets are not noted for their depth of 
color especially, but for their fine bouquet. This gives them' 
their value, and it is this in which the Italians, with their 
naturally excellent product, are so far behind the French. 
They are, perhaps, the most slovenly wine makers on the 
face of the earth, and today prefer the Mission and Malvasia, 
with their deep color and roughness, to the choiqest red wine 
grapes. Anything that will " scratch the throat," which is 
rough and acid is good for them, and their wineries, where 
everybody makes his own wine, are enough to shock the sen- 
sibilities of any common man or woman, and create a pre- 
judice against the use of wine. Let me not be understood, 
however, as if there were not good and skillful wine makers 
among them. But they are like angels visits, " few and far 
between," and deserve all the more credit as honorable ex- 
ceptions to the rule. 

Italy, as recently illustrated by Dr. Springmuchl, possesses 
some of the choicest material in the world, yet it is generally 
spoilt for want of proper management, and needs the manip- 
ulation of the French, the great wine doctors par excellence^ 
to make it drinkable, and to introduce it to the world as 
choice Bordeaux claret. 

The method above given is what the French call making 
claret \\\i\\ foulageox frequent stirring, and, if closely watched, 
will I think produce our choicest clarets and Burgundies, as 
it will preserve all their freshness, and yet extract all the color 
and tannin as well as the aroma. That a claret or Burgundy 
can never be as delicate as a fine white wine will be evident 
from the above. I have generally made some Zinfandel for 
my own drinking, which I prefer to the darker colored and 
rougher wines, and which has all that fine raspberry flavor 
so characteristic to the grape. To make this I simply draw 
some must from the bottom of the vat, after it has fermented 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 275 

about thirty-six hours, and fill it into a separate cask. This 
is much smoother, of a lighter color, being what we call a 
dark Schiller wine, and to my notion far surpasses all the 
deep colored wines which I get from the same tank after 
fermenting three days longer. But it would be no wine for 
the merchant, who generally buys pale clarets enough, and 
needs deeper colored wines to give them color and astringency. 
Besides, the taste which requires red wines seeks a different 
.product. It wants color and astringency, and we may as 
well gratify it, but we ought not to do so at the sacrifice of 
all the finesse and flavor of which red wines are capable. If 
;we attain a happy medium, giving them deep color, astrin- 
gency, and a pleasant acidity, they will surely not object to a 
good share of fine bouquet. 

The record of experiments by Prof. Hilgard at Berkeley, 
given below, of nine different modes of fermentation, will be 
of interest to the reader, showing w^hat the difference is in the 
various processes. The only criticism which I wish to make 
is that the pressing was delayed too long. I think it was a 
positive injury to No. 559 to delay the pressing until after the 
sixth day, while No. 560 should have been pressed on the 
fifth day, and none of them ought to have been deferred after 
the ninth day. This is the mistake, in my opinion, alluded 
to before. When active fermentation has ceased, the wine 
has become dry; every hour delayed works a positive injury 
to the wine, against which we ought to guard. This is juy 
comment on the w^holesale deduction against open fermenta- 
tion made by the learned professor. 

My readers will perceive that mine is not the "lazy man's" 
process. In fact, I do not count on laziness. Those who 
intend to succeed in this industry must be content to work 
sometimes all night; if necessary; they must be willing to 
watch their vines and their wine with unceasing diligence and 
•care, as they would their children; and "Excelsior" must be 



276 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

their motto, even if attained at some physical sacrifice. 

Following the very interesting experiments of Professor 
Hilgard, I give a treatise by R. D'Heureuse on air treatment, 
communicated to the Grape Culturist, (a paper I was then 
publishing in the interest of wine making and grape culture 
in 1870). It will serve to show that the same principle, 
aeration, underlies all rational fermentation. It contains 
much food for thought, and a great deal of sound theory, 
which has since been verified in other branches of industry. 
That air treatment would be very beneficial to our California 
wines, which contain a large amount of gluten, is evident; 
and all modern writers on the subject advise it in some form 
or other, either in the racking of wine, by letting it run 
through a faucet in a circular manner, through a rose, to 
bring each particle of the young wine into contact with the 
air, or by infusing air into the must by pumping through per- 
forated hose. Many predictions of poor D'Huereuse, who 
shared the fate of most inventors during his lifetime, have 
since been verified, and it affords me pleasure to contribute- 
thus towards "keeping his memory green." Small were his 
thanks and his emoluments for bringing more light to bear 
upon this important question, but the future may yet vindi- 
cate his pet theory. It seems like prophesy to read his predic- 
tions about concentrating must, shipping of grapes, centralis 
ization of wine industry, etc. The same great problems which 
we are trying to solve, are ably forshadowed in his treatise,, 
and seem to reach fulfilment now. 

EXPERIMENTS ON METHODS OF FERMENTATION. 

In view of the great interest attaching to the determination! 
of the effect of various methods of fermentation upon the re- 
sulting wines, a series of experimental fermentations with one 
and the same kind of grape, treated differently both in re- 
spect to temperature and the appliances used, was carried 
out with the results given below, so far as the record reaches 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 277 

at the time of going to press. While in some cases the dif- 
ferences in the outcome are already apparent, and are even 
indicated by the chemical analyses, in others they are at 
present very slight, and if existing at all, will become obvious 
only in the development of the wines. 

As will be noted, these experiments were all conducted 
within the limits of temperature adapted to "high fermenta- 
tion," since no means were at hand for maintaining a tem- 
perature sufficiently low for the "low fermentation" proper. 
It is intended to arrange for such experimental low fermen- 
tations next season, in order to test the question whether in 
wine-making the same precautions now universally practiced 
in the case of beer, might not be profitably employed in the 
preparation of wines which, like those of the Rhine and 
Moselle, are essentially low-fermented and can not be suc- 
cessfully reproduced by the aid of high fermentation. For 
the present the question of how best to manage the fermen- 
tation at the prevailing vintage temperature of California is 
the one having the greatest practical interest, and to this end 
the experiments were directed. 

On account of the heavy pressure of vintage work, these 
somewhat laborious experiments had to be deferred until 
after the main crop was in, and out of hand. The grapes 
used were a very good article of second-crop Zinfandel, cour- 
teously donated for the purpose by Mr. J. Gallegos, of Mis- 
sion San Jose. About one and one-sixth ton of these grapes 
was received in excellent condition, having been packed in 
the basket crates sent from the University for the purpose. 
The berries were rather small and the bunches quite loose, 
but thoroughly sound; taste agreeably sweet, and juice abun- 
dant. The composition of the latter was as follows: 

Solid contents by spindle 21.05 

Sugar by copper test 19.75 

Acid 65 

Ash 27 



278 GRAPK CULTURE A.ND 

Nine different samples were fermented, under the follow- 
ing conditions: 

(A.) In a hot chamber, kept at a temperature ranging 
from 95° to 102°, two batches of about 63 pounds each, one 
(No. 557) left entirely open in the tub, the other (No. 556) 
covered with a "floating top" that rose and fell with the 
pomace, screening it from access of air. Both were stirred. 

(B.) In a room kept at a temperature ranging from 72° to 
75"", five fifty-gallon tanks, each charged with about 230 
pounds of grapes, filling the tanks to within ten inches of the 
top, and arranged as follows: 

No. 558. Mash put in in three successive portions, and 
each kept to itself by means of a lattice framework kept in 
place by wedges, thus forcibly keeping the pomace sub- 
merged and divided into three separate" portions, according 
to the system of Ferret; the uppermost frame being about 
two inches below the surface of the must before fermenta- 
tion; a cover laid on top of the tank, according to Ferret's 
precept. 

No. 559. Mash put in at once and the pomace kept sub- 
merged about two inches below the surface by means of a 
single "Ferret's" frame, according to the practice prevailing, 
to some extent, at Fresno and elsewhere; no cover of any kind. 

No. 560. Mash left uncovered and subjected to frequent 
^^ f outage,'" or stirring, at least three times a day during fer- 
mentation ; a common French pi-actice. 

No. 561. Mash covered with a "floating cover," rising 
and falling with the pomace, and stirred three times a day, wash- 
ing off the upper side of the cover in case of frothing over ; a 
method also used in France and adopted as both good and 
convenient, in the Viticultural Laboratory." 

No. 563. Grapes put in whole, stems and all, to be grad- 
ually crushed by means of the cross-peg stirrer ; a method 
much in use in Burgundy, and also practiced at several 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 279 

wineries in this State ; no cover ; stirrer used "energetically 
three times a day. '* Morel process." 

No. 564. A tub charged with about 140 pounds of mash 
and then left to itself, cap, vinegar, flies, and all, without 
stirring or cover ; the old Californian method. 

(C.) In the cellar of the laboratory, kept at a steady tem- 
perature of 62^. 

No. 562. Fifty-gallon tank charged like the rest, with 230 
pounds of grape mash, provided with a "floating cover," and 
stirred three times daily. 

In all these vessels the temperature was read off three times 
daily, during the height of fermentation every two or three 
hours, and in the tanks provided with the frames the tempera- 
ture of the top liquid, and of the pomace beneath each frame, 
was separately ascertamed, in order to follow the exact course 
of the fermentation. Observations similar to the last were 
made every morning in the tank's subjected to stirring, so as 
to ascertain the temperature of the top and bottom layers of 
the pomace cap formed during the night, and that of the 
liquid beneath. 

The observations made with the several fermentations are 
plotted in the table below, for greater facility of obtaining a 
comprehensive view of the results. Where several figures are 
placed opposite one and the. same hour of observation, they 
are to be understood as representing the temperature of the 
top and bottom, if two ; if three, top, middle, and bottom, 
respectively. During the first and last stages of the fermen- 
tation, when the changes were very slow, observations are 
sometimes omitted. 

The highest temperature observed in each case is printed 
in full-face type. 

■ It is seen from the table that the high-temperature fermen- 
tation. No. 556, went through with extraordinary rapidity, 
the young wine being dry within two days of the setting of 



280 ORAPE CULTURE ANB 

the mash. The same quantity of mash, set without cover and 
at the outset left without stirring (No, 557), was markedly 
slower in its course, although the maximum temperature 
reached was the same and occurred about the same time as 
in the other case. As the fermentation seemed nearly ended 
on the evening of the third day, a floating cover was put on 
in order to prevent acetification during the night, and the 
hot chamber was opened so as to share the temperature of 
the room, viz., 75°. But in the morning a cap had formed 
and a slight fermentation was still going on, as is evidenced 
by the temperature having remained at 93^, despite exposure 
to a much lower one. But a few hours later all appearance 
of fermentation vanished. It is not easy to see why the 
absence of the cover should have made so much difference in 
the time of ending the fermentation. Less frequent stirring 
was probably the main cause. 

The relatively small mass concerned in these fermentations 
prevented the temperature from rising so high as to injure the 
yeast, 102*^ being the maximum observed. With the larger 
masses used in the other experiments, the temperature rose as 
much as 20° above that of the room ; and correspondingly 
the maximum in these two fermentations would probably have 
been about 120^, had the same amount of grapes been used. 

In the two fermentations (Nos. 558 and 559) with frames 
to keep the pomace submerged, the record shows that while 
up to the time of the maximum, the temperature was always 
highest at the top, shortly afterward this relation became in- 
verted, the lower portion being found warmer than the 
upper. This fact is most apparent in the case where the sin- 
gle frame was used (No. 559), in which the maximum tem- 
perature of the must below the pomace cap was actually 
attained about thirty hours later than in the pomace itself, 
showing that the fermentation in this lower portion was far 
behind that in the upper. This consecutive occurrence of 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 281 

iiiaxima explains why the highest temperature found in the 
single-frame process was considerably (4"") behind that 
observed in the three-frame process (No. 558), where the 
whole mass reached its most intense action simultaneously, 
although a slight occurrence of the reversal of temperatures is 
observable here also. It should be noted that (as stated in 
the table) the latter process was not entirely normal in its 
course, a portion of the pomace that should have stayed 
below the frames having been carried through the mashes to 
the surface by the ascending gas, thus equalizing the temper^ 
ature throughout the mass much more than would have been 
the case had the pomace cap been of sufficient thickness under 
each frame, or the meshes of the frame fine enough to pre- 
vent the skins from rising to the surface. 

Where the single frame only was used, scarcely a grape 
skin was seen on the surface ; and except toward the last, the 
maximum temperature was always found near the lower layer 
of the pomace cap. During the last two days a white scum 
was seen to gradually form on the surface of the wine, and in 
the end gathered into white mould islets, as was observable 
under the microscope. No such scum was to be seen on the 
three-frame tank, which had remained covered during the 
whole process, except while the temperature was being taken. 

Marked differences in the course of their fermentation is 
also apparent in two tanks that were subjected to foulage, or 
stirring, viz. : Nos. 560 and 561. The one which was left 
open to the air, and also received ani extra amount of stirring, 
fermented with a violence greater than any of the others ; so 
that in order to prevent a wholesale running over of the froth 
and serious loss, it became necessary to fasten down on it a 
cover for four hours. The maximum temperature of 95° was 
not, however, reached until about eighteen hours later, al- 
though the pomace cap at the depth of seven inches showed 
10 1° after the violence subsided. The action and tempera- 



282 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

ture then rapidly declined, and the mash was ready for press- 
ing quite twenty-four hours before the tank which had heen 
fermented with the cover on. The latter reached its highest 
temperature about the same time as No. 560, but it was only 
92°, 3° lower, and the most violent fermentation occurred 
about eight hours after the violent outburst of the companion 
tank was over. A slight action continued quite twenty-four 
hours longer in the tank fermented with the cover on. 

In the latter respect we have here the reverse of what oc- 
curred in the hot chamber, where the mash having the cover 
on went through most rapidly. But this was not much stirred 
at first, and the larger experiment conforms to the presump- 
tion in the premises, which is that the more perfect aeration 
will bring about the most vigorous fermentation. 

In the case of No. 563, the " Morel process," in which the 
grapes were put in the tank with the stems uncrushed, and 
were gradually crushed with pole provided with cross pegs, the 
course of the fermentation seems to have been governed more 
by the fact that the stems kept the pomace diffused through 
the whole mass, than by the intended gradual crushing of the 
grapes. The latter were so tender that after the fourth day 
little more crushing could be affected, the whole having be- 
come so liquefied that the berries remaining uncrushed evaded 
the pole; but instead of forming a solid cap on top, the pomace 
and stems always reached within six to nine inches of the bot- 
tom of the tank; and thus the fermentation was accomplished 
nearly under the same conditions as that of No. 558 (three 
frames), but with the addition of aeration. Hence the tem- 
perature rose higher than in any other mash fermented in the 
same room, viz.: to 97^. This maximum was reached about 
the same time as in the others — on the fifth day; but the fer- 
mentation continued slowly, and doubtless in consequence of 
the occasional crushing of fresh berries, the wine was longer 
in getting dry than any of the rest. It thus appears that in 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 283 

the actual practice of this method, the effect on the tempera- 
ture will depend greatly upon the nature of the grapes so treat- 
ed. The small-berried, thick-skinned Pinots, to which this 
treatment is chiefly applied in France, will in general gain the 
benefit of a slower fermentation, but in application to such 
grapes as Zinfandel, Charbono, and similar delicate-skinned 
grapes, the practice seems to present no advantages. Unless 
a strict measure is observed in the pounding, in the case of 
very juicy grapes, a certain proportion is sure to escape crush- 
ing altogether. 

No. 564. The "go-as-you-please" method of many early 
and some contemporary wine-makers, in which the pomace 
was allowed to rise to the top and stay there to the end, ex- 
posed to air, mould and vinegar flies, was, of course, intended 
only to illustrate " how not to do it." The pomace-cap was 
for most of the time emerged from one and a half to two 
inches above the must, and began to acetify so soon as the 
violent fermentation was over; the temperature in the pomace 
rising as high as 89° on the fourth day. But in the absence 
of any stiiring-in of the pomace, the fermentation in the must 
below was slow in completing itself, and a slight action con- 
tinued into the eleventh day. By that time a generation of 
vinegar-fly maggots had developed and was making the 
emerged pomace look very lively; in pressing, some animal 
juices inevitably mingled with the wine, but the latter showed 
no obvious defect at the time of pressing, and its taste was 
that of a more advanced product than any of the others. Its 
subsequent history remains to be seen. 

No. 562 was fermented under precisely the same treatment 
as No. 561 (that is, with floating cover, and thrice dsLily /oti- 
/age), except that the temperature was, on an average, 13° 
lower, that is, 62°. It started slowly; its maximum tempera- 
ture was reached about twelve hours later than in those fer- 



284 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



merited at 75^, and did not exceed 83^. It had become fairly 
still on the tenth day, and should have been pressed on the 
eleventh; while the tank similarly treated at 75° was pressed 
on the eighth day. It was a healthy steady, fermentation, at 
no time threatening to froth over the tank, and only for a short 
time frothing over even the floating cover. It was by far the 
most comfortable fermentation of the nine. 

COMPOSITION OF THE WINES. 

The table below shows the composition of the wines result- 
ing from the several fermentations. They were all analyzed, 
and their color determined, within a few days after pressing, 
the murk being filtered for the purpose. 

COMPOSITION OF GRAPES AND MUST, AND WINES PRODUCED THERE- 
FROM BY DIFFERENT METHODS OF FERMENTATION. 





3 




Grapes. 




D 


IS 

n 

: ft) 


11 

2, 


ft 


1 

s 

O 


of 
1 £ 


556 
557 

558 


1 Foulage, with floating cover ) m nao mno 

jFoulage, without cover | a. jo luu 

1 Three Ferret's Frames 1 

1 Single Ferret Frame 1 

'Foulage, no cover 1 7oo_75o 

1 Foulage, with floating top \ ^- '- '^ 

1 Morel Process 1 

J Old Style, no cover nor foulage J 

Foulage and floating top. Temp. 62° 


61.0 

65.0 
230 .. 
280 .. 
230 .. 
230 .. 
230 .. 
140 .. 
230 .. 


Ll.l 
10. 8 


7.0 
7.0 




1T2 
169 


559 








560 








561 


1 






568 








564 

56^ 


1 












1 







WINE- MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



285 



02 

us; 



Must. 



O ?o 



WiNl 



Alcohol. 



Color. 



556 
557 
558 
559 
560 
561 
563 
564 
562 



[ 21.1 



16.40 



19.75 



.65 



7.78 

7.78 

7.78 

7.23 

7.78 

I 7.78 

7.16 

I 7.09 

L 7.78 



9.73 
9.73 
9.73 
9.00 
9.73 
9.73 
8.93 
8.85 
9.73 



14 


45:4 


13 


42.4 


10 


30.0 


10 


27.8 


10 


46.4 


12 


47.0 


13 


47.6 


12 


46.6 


12 


34.1 



,..2d 
...2d 
,..2d 
...3d 
...2d 
...2d 
...2d 
...2d 
...3d 



ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH. 

As regards, first, the alcoholic contents of the several wines, 
it will be noted that the same percentage was obtained in six 
out of the nine ; while three, viz., Nos. 559, 563, and 564, 
corresponding respectively to the single frame, Morel, and 
^'old-style" processes, show a deficiency which does not differ 
widely for the three, being not quite one per cent. 

In two of the above cases this result was to be expected, 
and the causes are not far to seek. In the single-frame pro- 
cess, a relatively thin layer of liquid was exposed to the air, 
constantly agitated by the gas coming from below, and heated by 
its position just over the hot cap. The alcohol simply evapor- 
ated from this isolated portion of the wine, and where this 
mode of fermentation is practiced on the large scale, I have 
sometimes found this layer so warm that toward the end of the 
fermentation the bulk of its alcohol was gone and it had a 
vapid, flat taste, often more of vinegar than of alcohol. 

In the case of the old-style process, also, it is easy to see 
where the loss of alcohol occurs. It is here the hot pomace 
cap, oflering a large surface to the air and kept drenched with 
the fermenting liquid by the bubbling up from below, which 



286 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

assists the evaporation. That the latter is accompanied by 
its transformation into vinegar is apparent to the nostrils so 
soon as the first violent stage of the fermentation is past. 

In the case of the "Morel process" the cause of the loss of 
alcohol is not so obvious. It might be accounted for by the 
abundant stirring and high temperature, and, doubtless, this 
contributes to the evaporation, so much the more as the 
tems, more or less emerged above the surface, afford better 
opportunity than a cap formed of skins alone. Yet the loss 
appears to be greater than can be accounted for on this basis 
alone, for the reason that in No. 560, where tho. foiilage was 
nearly as diligent as in the "Morel" tank, and which was also 
open to the air, the alcohol percentage is not sensibly dimin- 
ished. It is possible that from some cause a part of the sugar 
may have been converted into some other compound than al- 
cohol ; among these, glycerine suggests itself, but the deter- 
mination of this substance in the wines has not yet been made. 

A somewhat unexpected result is the fact that the two hot 
fermentations (556 and 557) yielded the same amount of al- 
cohol as those fermented at a much lower temperature. The 
obvious explanation is, that the short duration of these fer- 
mentations balanced the influence of the high temperature as 
compared with those in the slower fermentations, in which 
the opportunity for evaporation lasted longer. It will be highly 
interesting to compare, hereafter, the other products formed 
alongside of the alcohol in the three sets of fermentations. 

ACID. 

As regards, next, the acid of the several wines, it is not un- 
expected to find that the open /ou /age, No. 560, on the one 
hand, and the Morel process on the other, having given the 
highest figure, the one because of the constant access of air, 
the other from the same cause, in addition to the extraction 
of acid from the stems. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 287 

The lowest figure for acid (.49) is given by Nos. 556 and 
558, the hot fermentation with cover, and by the one with 
the three submerged frames. In the case of the latter this 
was to be looked for, and is precisely one of the chief advan- 
tages claimed for Ferret's method. In the case of the former 
it is somewhat unexpected, and is the more instructive in con- 
trast to No. 557, the hot fermentation in which no cover was 
used, and in which the acid is one pro-mille higher. Almost 
precisely the same difference occurs in the fermentations made 
at the lower temperature, one with the floating cover on (No. 
561) and the other (No. 560) without cover. The beneficial 
influence of the cover in preventing the formation of acid 
during fermentation is therefore placed beyond question. 

It should, however, be added, that in none of the fermen- 
tations made, there is at this time (November 24), a notable 
amount of volatile (acetic) acid. This is true even of No. 
564, the "old-style" one, in which the odor of vinegar was 
abundantly obvious before pressing. It shows the odor of 
vinegar plainly in boiling, but the amount is at present less 
than five thousandths of one per cent. 

It is somewhat remarkable that the fermentation of 562, 
made at the lowest temperature, should yield a relatively 
high proportion of acid, exceeding that found in the fermen- 
tation made under the same conditions at a higher tempera- 
ture. Whether this is to be accounted for by the longer 
duration of the low-temperature fermentation, remains to be- 
investigated. 

TANNIN. 

Considering, next, the matter of tannin, we note at a 
glance the influence of the high temperature in aiding a com- 
plete extraction. The two hot fermentations, Nos, 556 and 
557, have given the maximum of tannin, despite their short 
duration; more even than in the case of the tank with dili- 
gent open foulage, and as much as the Morel process, stems 

19 



288 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

and all, which was continued for eleven days; the effect in 
this case is so marked as to leave no doubt of the influence 
of this factor, and in it lies, probably, at least a part of the 
explanation of the fact that the hot parts of our State have 
yielded more tannin in their red wines than the cooler ones. 

The two tanks in which the frames were used (Nos. 558 
and 559) present a curious problem. In both cases the 
same amount of tannin was taken up, although in the one, 
the pomace was in a solid mass, and in the other, was kept 
diffused all through. The result is disappointing as concerns 
the three-frame process, and shows clearly why, despite its 
apparent advantages, this method of treatment has not been , 
widely adopted even in France. It is evident that simply 
keeping the pomace m the liquid cannot replace the grinding 
and disintegrating action of the direct stirring or foitlage^ so 
far as the extraction of tannin and color are concerned; for 
a glance at the color-column shows, that the deficiency of 
tannin is accompanied by a similar relative deficiency of color, 
as compared with the tanks that were stirred. The same 
holds of the single-frame fermentation, where the color is 
even less; and the fact that an even amount of tannin was 
extracted notwithstanding the pomace was in a solid mass at 
the top, is explained by the high temperature which, as the 
table shows, prevailed in that cap. The same consideration 
doubtless applies to the "old-style" (No. 562), in which the 
high temperature of the pomace-cap offset the lack of stirring, 
and both tannin and color were fully extracted. 

A singular and unexplained fact is the deficiency of tannin 
in the tank with open foulage, without cover, for which no 
obvious cause can be assigned; the duplication of the deter- 
mination, however, leaves no doubt of the fact, which can 
hardly be explained without assuming that some of the tan- 
nin at first extracted was subsequently destroyed by the action 
of the air. If this were so, the full complement of tannin in 



WINE-MAKlJsX; IX CAl.IFORXIA. 289 

the "Morel" product might be explained by the presence of 
the astringent stems. 

The column giving the color-intensities is very instructive 
also. It will be seen that those yielding a low color were 
the two tanks with frames, already discussed, and the low- 
temperature fermentation, No. 562, in which despite diligent 
stirring, and the pretty full extraction of tannin, that of the 
color remained incomplete, being nearly one-third less than 
the maximum. 

The full discussion of the bearings of these fermentation 
experiments is perhaps best deferred until the development of 
the wines, and their full analysis in their more advanced con- 
dition, shall give more data in regard to the final results ot 
the several treatments. Those familiar with the subject of 
fermentation may, however, already derive important lessons 
from what is recorded above. Of course, these results must 
be verified by repetition during the coming season, before 
they can be accepted as maxims; but there is much that 
cannot well be upset by any subsequent experiments. Among 
the points that may be considered well settled, is that the 
method of fermentation adopted by this department (viz. . 
floating cover, with thrice daily stirring) is amply justified by 
the outcome of the nine fermentations. It secures all the ad- 
vantages of aeration, full extraction of tannin and color, and 
maximum of alcohol, without any risk of acetification if 
properly managed. The method has been carried out on the 
large scale by Mr. John Gallegos for two years past, and has 
yielded excellent results; the only difiiculty encountered be- 
ing that in the case of very soft-skinned grapes, the frequent 
stirring reduced them to a pulp which it was difficult to press. 
In such cases the stirring must be moderated and made with 
implements having the least crushing effect; but I am satis- 
fied that in the hot vintage-climate of California, the leav- 
ing-open of fermenting tanks to the access of air is most 



290 (iRAPE CULTt^E AND 

objectionable, is one of the most common and prominent 
causes of unsoundness, and should be done away with uni- 
versally, adopting either the use of floating covers, or at least 
a cover over the top of the tank. .Whether the disadvantages 
of the single-frame system can be overcome by a repeated 
pumping over of the liquid from below^ over the pomace, is a 
question yet to be determined; but that in the use of this 
method there is always a serious loss of color and tannin can 
hardly be doubtful. 

E. W. HiLGARD. 



CHAPTER V. 

d'heureuse air treatment. 

Alleged improvements, involving sw^eeping changes in many 
industries, should above all bear the light which close practical 
investigation may shed upon errors to which new as well as 
time-venerated doctrines are subject; corroborative tests only 
can establish their value. Theories, apparently sound, by 
neglect of some essential condition, may fail to be confirmed 
by tests. One of the most general and firmly rooted notions 
has been the dread of access of air during fermenting or pre- 
serving operations; the most satisfactory proofs only will es- 
tablish the fact that exclusion of air should be abolished, and 
that the suggestion of air-treatment as a safe, cheap, easy and 
effectual agent for wine and other industries is well founded. 
For the sake of our American wine industry it is proposed to 
review the principles on which air-treatment is based, the 
manipulations, the advantages claimed, and the conditions to 



WINJU-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 291 

be observed, the knowledge of which, by exercise of common 
sense, would enable any unbiased individual to test and judge 
for himself. 

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES. 

One broad principle underlies nearly all applications of 
air-treatment for the purpose of imparting stability, and to 
prevent deterioration in organic substances by a rapidly oxi- 
dizing and eliminating action on the albumenous parts, 
which all crude organic substances contain, so that by ordin- 
ary elementary exposure the substance may decompose or 
decay and thus form, in the admirable economy of nature, 
sustenance for other organism. The presence of the albu- 
menous parts is an essential condition of decomposition, their 
removal insures stability, comparatively or absolute. Cur- 
rents of air passed through the substance to act uniformly on 
all parts, effect first of all an oxidation of the albumenous 
matter, which is rendered insoluble and thus eliminated 
either during fermentation, by which the sugar is converted 
into alcohol, or by absence of fermentation at a temperature 
above 135"^ F., at which organism is killed, or by both 
modes in conjunction. These few plain intelligible facts 
constitute the whole basis of air-treatment, the applications 
are simply deductions. 

It is certainly an error that all albumenous m.atter coagu- 
lates at a certain high temperature; if this were correct, a 
fluid so heated for hours could, if clear and limpid, contain 
no albumen. Experience plainly contradicts this, for in- 
stance, in vegetable or animal extracts obtained by heat, 
malt or grain wort, saccharine juices, crude oils, fats, etc. 
Nor do these and other substances, containing gluten or al- 
bumen, acquire stability by mere heating; if, [after cooling, 
the germs of micoderms in the air find access, they cause 
fermentation or decay, as long as they find albumenous parts 
to feed upon. These however removed, no micodermic 



292 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

action can take place, and stability is imparted. It thus be- 
comes plain that all manipulations and processes for the 
preservation of organic matter should go towards freeing 
them from the albumenous parts, otherwise they remain im- 
perfect and unreliable. 

The alcohol of wine is more inclined to turn into acetic 
acid the less alcohol is present, and the larger the proportion 
of gluten. Thoroughly fermented wine generally contains 
but little gluten, so that the heating process (to I2i'^-i3i° 
F. to kill the micoderms) as a rule forms a protection; how- 
ever, if not previously fermented dry, the wine will remain 
sweet, for no known process but fermentation alternates the 
sugar. 

In accordance with the foregoing, wine freed from gluten 
by air-treatment should have received full protection against 
future disturbance, and the results obtained corroborate the 
assumption; not only after but during fermentation, a secur- 
ity is obtained which heretofore was wanting, this most im- 
portant part of all wine making, the fermentation, placed 
under the control of time. 

THEORY OF FERMr:NTATION. 

A brief allusion to the principles of fermentation may be 
in place. Alcoholic fermentation is the result of the pres- 
ence of certain micoderms, that require air for vigorous 
healthy action and propagation, while they suffer from w^fnt 
of atmospheric oxygen. Ozone is formed by rapid passage 
of air through (aqueous) fluid, and invigorates the alcoholic, 
acts destructively on other but injurious micoderms that 
cause disease, putrefaction and acidification; but both kinds 
can only vegetate where they find gluten to live. Periodical 
currents of air through a fermenting fluid accelerate, insure 
and perfect the fermentation by invigorating the alcoholic 
micoderms, and the excess of gluten is at the same time 
gradually removed by oxidation, so that none remains to> 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 293 

support the micoderms that necessarily perish when their 
functions — conversion of sugar into alcohol — is accomplished. 
Unless invigorated, fermentation proceeds very slowly to- 
ward the end, as when the atmospheric oxygen is exhausted, 
the alcohol formed seems to stupify the micoderms; a large 
proportion of alcohol, or presence of alkaloids, (hops and 
glycerine for instance) prevents or retards fermentation. 

Ground taste in wine is due to the gluten it contains and 
improper treatment which brings out the taste. Air-treat- 
ment removes with the gluten all tendency to ground taste. 

HOW AIR-TREATMENT IS APPLIED TO FLUID. 

To impregnate a fluid with a gas, v,'e admit the gas below, 
that it may rise upwards through the fluid. Accordingly the 
air, to act most effectually, is admitted into the fluid in a 
divided state by perforated pipes or mouth pieces, sunk near 
the bottom of the vessel, impelled by an air-force pump. 
Air-treatment of a hot fluid for purification from albumen re- 
quires a vigorous and continuous current of air frequently for 
hours to coagulate all albumenous parts ; for fermentation 
however, periodical gentle currents are sufficient. 

TO WINE ESPECIALLV. 

A vigorous fermentation has been found the most satisfac- 
tory for must as well as other mash, and a sufficiently high 
temperature (75'^ to 85- F.) is essential. Fluctuation of 
temperature should be avoided as always detrimental. When 
the must is warmed (in a gathering tank) to about 65^ to 70"-^ 
F., the tanks or casks filled, the temperature steadily main- 
tained, air is impelled vigorously for some ten minutes, and 
unless sugar is added, a foaming up by a rising scum, will soon 
take place. After this subsides (from six to ten hours) air is 
gently impelled two or three times each day for about five 
minutes at a time, till the fermentation is finished, which is 
accomplished at the stated temperature in from five to four- 



294 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

teen days without fail. The air pipes (of block tin) are intro- 
duced into the casks through the bung-hole, in tanks from 
above, and, where pulp is worked for red wine, should be 
stationary for the operation. The tendency to clarify appears 
at once when the carbonic acid gas ceases to form. A few 
days later the still somewhat turbid wine may be drawn off to 
settle in casks, bunged up, and a few weeks later will be 
found clear, of free ripe taste, subject to no after fermentation 
or other wine disease, free of ground taste, and fit to be 
shipped to any part of the world, without more risk than old 
well stored wines. Scrupulous cleanliness, sweet vessels, etc., 
are, of course, always essential. 

With proper care and judgment, all wines can be quickly 
finished by air-treatment, that were previously but imperfectly 
fermented in the usual mode, even diseased wines (if free 
from acetic acidification) restored. But no general directions 
can in these cases guarantee success to careless or inexper- 
ienced persons. It should, however, be born in mind, that 
in all the above cases, the object is the removal of the excess 
of gluten by a quickly started and lively (though brief) fer- 
mentation, for which the presence of some sound amd active 
ferment, sufficient sugar, proper heat and air are essential. 
Addition of ferment may, therefore, be required, or of sugar, 
the determination of the proper proportions of either, is the 
work of experience and judgment. The ferment — if sound 
wine yeast or another kind — should be brought into full vig- 
orous action before it is added to the quickly-warmed wine 
(of 70 to 75'^ F.), this temperature retained unchangeable 
during the few days of subsequent finishing fermentation. All 
subsequent processes are, however, obviated by the use of 
air-treatment of the new must, cider, etc., which is thus car- 
ried at once beyond the reach of the many vicissitudes to 
which wines fermented in the usual manner, are subject. 

Wines may be classified in a general way as swtet and dry 



AVINE-MAKIXG IX CALIFORNIA. 29o 

wines, or those still containing sugar, and those entirely or 
nearly free from it. Dry wines form the bulk of the product 
of European and domestic vintages, as the modes to manu- 
facture them appeared more simple. ■ It lias been shown 
above how dry wines are more quickly, safely and cheaply 
obtained by air-treatment. 

SWEET WINES, 

However, are as yet obtained by partial fermentation, inter- 
ruption of this process ; and by addition of spirits (to 20 per 
cent, or more of alcohol) or glycerine, etc., stability is im- 
parted, further fermentation and deterioration rather kept 
under than precluded. They are cordials rather than wines. 
No sweet and light alcoholic wines are in the market (except 
sparkling), for the simple reason that tliey could Jiot be manu- 
factured with any degree of stability ; the remnant of the 
gluten prevented it. Air-treatment furnishes an easy solution 
to this question also, and permits the manufacture of sweet 
wines of any desired alcoholic strength and most perfect stabil- 
ity, because free from gluten. Americans are fond of sweet 
wines and should have them. 

The must, fresh from the grape (or other fruit), heated to 
above 140'-^ F. is vigorously air-treated for a couple of hours 
(or less), till the albumen is coagulated, which is removed by 
bag filtering, still hot. After cooling to 70^ F. it is subjected 
to air-fermentation with the addition of a quantity of green 
must, suitable to insure the desired proportions of alcohol and 
sweetness. Or any wine obtained by thorough air-fermenta- 
tion may be sweetened with crushed sugar free of gluten to 
suit the taste, without danger of future disturbance. 

BRANDY. 

The described air-treatment for fermentation of must or 
piquette secures by full attenuation of all saccharine parts a 
higher yield, of 10 to 15 per cent, of spirits, than the usual 



296 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

mode, in which 2 per cent, or more of the saccharine from 
the 12 to 20 in pulp or juice, is left unconverted and irre- 
claimably lost. (The loss in grain mash thus saved is still 
higher, from 16 to 25 per cent.) 

The azotized parts are rendered insoluble, and by clearing 
or straining are kept out of the still, permit the formation of 
none or very little fusel oil, so that a purer spirit at once re- 
sults. Air-treatment in the still during distillation of any 
pulp produces spirits free of fusel (at least the first run), and 
subsequent air-treatment of any distilled spirits at a raised 
temperature in suitable close vessels communicates quickly 
the properties of age, destroys the fusel-oils. To retain the 
fullest natural wine flavor in brandies, redistillation for refin- 
ing should be avoided as much as possible, and air-treatment 
provides the best means to effect at once cheaply what many 
years of storing is generally made to accomplish with enor- 
mous expenditure. 

It is obvious that must, deprived of gluten, (what no other 
known process accomplishes) in the hot state as explained, 
like any .other extract, may be subsequently concentrated, 
without the addition of sugar or anything else, kept in casks 
on draught, as preserve, confectionary, or may be employed 
as addition in wine making in distant parts, to produce 
greater variety of wine at any place. Enormous quantities 
of thus purified concentrated must from California or other 
southern grapes, containing little bouquet and much sugar, 
could be more profitably employed to blend with green musts 
of northern strong flavored grapes, deficient in sugar; than 
turning either into wine separately. 

cp:ntralization in wine indu.strv. 

If we recall to m.ind numerous home industries only a few 
generations back, for instance the flax grown on the family 
field, woven on the family . heirloom, and taken to market 
periodically to be sold, we wonder at the slow, tedious. 



WINE-MAKIX(r IX CALIFORNIA. 297 

penny-wise business, that aimed to do all the work, but 
earned little. ]Mills now buy the flax, and sell the linen to 
the dealers. All other industries were remodelled in the 
same manner; producers, manufacturers and dealers are dis- 
tinctly separated to make them pay ; and still we see wine 
men adhere to the primitive policy in wine making. As long 
as wines had to be stored several years to be ready for ship- 
ping, the excuse was not unfounded that the investments of 
distinct establishments were enormous. Air treatment, how- 
ever, annihilates this objection, permits the cellar to be 
cleared a few months after the vintage, to be ready for next 
season. Central wine houses in grape-growing districts are 
bound to be profitable, to take the place of the numerous 
press houses, purchase grapes by contract for years ahead, 
and a few months after vintage turn over their ripe, matured 
product to the dealers. Large establishments work cheaper, 
can have more intelligent and competent supervision, have a 
choice of numerous varieties of grapes, to blend and produce 
choicer wines than the small producer can, and make busi- 
ness easier, more agreeable and more profitable on all sides, 
by yielding quick returns to all parties interested. The 
American wine industry can only prosper, by employing 
quick ripening methods in manufacture, and division of 
labor as indicated. 

SHIPPING GRAPES. 

Grapes more qualified for the table are produced in large 
quantities and offer better remuneration to the growers to 
ship to distant markets than to the press house. A great 
deal, however, is now spoiled in transportation and storing. 
It behooves us ro reduce the loss to the lowest figure. 
Everybody has observed that confined air favors and quick- 
ens decay; that currents of air preserve. This demonstrates 
the benefits of air treatment without direct oxidizing action 
in the gluten. Through the compartments of the railroad 



298 GR KVE CULTUKE AND 

car, the siorehouses or vessels, currents of air are directed 
with occasionally the vapors of a little burnt sulphur, or 
other disinfectants, are employed with air to destroy the 
germs of fnould or decay that may have found their way or 
even have attacked to the grapes or other produce. 

A blower, run by hand or power, furnishes air or other 
gasses to a system of pipes at the bottom of the compart- 
ments, and the air, after it circulates over the objects in the 
compartments (a number of which can be operated in turns) 
is allowed to escape by flues, or by these may return to the 
blower, to repeat its action. All kinds of fruit, produce or 
meal can be preserved for a long time, at any season of the 
year; which permits an exchange of the products of our 
country, aye, of the globe, heretofore unattainable. 

CONCENTRATED PRESERVES. 

The preparation of juices or extracts, purified by air treat- 
ment and concentrated, was alluded to under sweet wine^3. 
Many thousand tons of fruit will annually find their way into 
the markets in this condensed shape, and with great benefit 
to all concerned, while in the distructable green state they 
would have remained almost worthless. The aromatic, fruity 
flxivors are mostly retained by conducting the process of puri- 
fication and concentration at a heat not exceeding 140 to 
150^ F. There is no necessity to put up these articles in 
air-tight, hermetically sealed jars or cans; barrels answer 
the purpose. Nor need those alkaline powders and lyes, 
under the name of preserving powders or fluids (every one of 
them detrimental to the digestion of the consumer) be added 
to the air-purified preserves ; their keeping qualities are se- 
cured by deglutination. It will be borne in mind that the 
object in employing the aforesaid injurious adulterations, is 
to neutralize an acid action for some time, by which alone 
fermentation or putrefaction can take place. Glycerine, oil 
or hops, or other essential oils, even sugar, salt, alcohol, etc., 



AVINP>MAKING IN CALIFORXIA. 299 

are employed for the same purpose; that is to act, for the 
time being in the capacity of an alkaloid, and to retard or 
prevent impending changes. The mere mention makes it 
plain, that innumerable articles could be reduced to the 
fluid, syrupy or solid state in the manner described, for the 
sake of economy, to prevent loss by spoiling in transporta- 
tion or storing, to reduce the freight by decreasing the bulk, 
and to return the refuse to the soil as manure, after it served 
as food for animals. All this, and much more, will be gen- 
erally adopted before many years pass by. 

RETROSPECT. 

The foregoing attempt to demonstrate the importance of air 
treatment for the American wine industry, and to foreshadow 
some of the changes which it is bound to effect; equal 
changes by the same powerful agent, the support of all organ- 
ism, are certain in numerous other industries. The revolu- 
tion w^orked by Bessemers air process in the manufacture of 
kon and steel, is but the forerunner in the manufac- 
ture of orgiinic substances of almost any kind by air treat- 
ment, a revolution, however, pregnant only of unalloyed 
benefits to the w^hole human family. In this progressive 
spirit I hope it will be received by those millions whose 
health it will secure, and whose labors it shall lighten, be it 
in wine making, brewing, malting, distilling, sugar or oil 
making, tanning, or the manufacture of extracts, transporta- 
tion or storing, the purification of spirits from noxious fusil 
oils, or of plain drinking water from organic contaminations. 

To prevent misconstruction it should be stated that the 
inventor of air treatment is far from considering the details, 
as here described, rigid rules for all cases alike; but mere de- 
tails, which, according to the species of must, treated in the 
hands of intelligent experts, will give satisfactory results. 
For instance, when a few weeks more time for fermentation is 
no object, one vigorous air treatment of the must for one half 



300 GKAPE CULTURE AND 

or one hour at 60'-^ F.,- previous to fermentation, may answer; 
in other cases, one fourth to one half hour preliminary vigorous 
action, and subsequent gentle treatments during fermentation, 
several times for one or two days, or once every day, may do 
the work. It must necessarily be left to the discretion of 
those qualified to do the work, and inclined to systematical 
experiments, to ascertain the best modes applicable to the 
varying conditions that exert their influences during fermenta- 
tion. It seems essential to accelerate the fermentation, so a 
to carry the musts as quickly as possible through the fermenting 
rooms, which are frequently but poorly protected against cold, 
generally not arranged for heating, and of limited-capacity. 
Proper air treatment performs this; abler men may develop 
more. 

R. d'heureuse. 

The last remarks were evidently written as applicable to the 
Eastern industry. Here we have to guard more against ex- 
cessive heat during fermentation than against cold. It will 
be easy for the intelligent reader to form his own conclusions, 
and vary his practice accordingly. Aeration, no matter by 
what means, or how applied, underlies all sound fermenta- 
tion, and while we must aerate our must during fermentation 
to bring about a perfect fermentation, and deposit the gluten 
and albumenous substances, we must also exclude the air, as 
near as possible, as soon as the wine is thoroughly fermented 
and finished. I cannot think of any better simile to illustrate 
this, than to compare the must to a living organism, constant- 
ly omitting and exhaling noxious substances. When it has 
become wine, it inhales ; and is apt to be affected by all out- 
ward influences. There is no absolute period of quietude, 
but a constant change for better or worse, according to the 
treatment it receives ; so it behooves us to see that we treat it 
well. In this climate, we need not resort to the practices of 
Dr. Gall, and Petiot, so necessary in Europe and even in the 



WIXE-MAKINf; IX CALIFORNIA. 301 

East. Our genial climate will give us a must, rich enough in 
sugar, and light enough in acid, to make a good, saleable 
wine every season, and it would be foolish indeed to resort to 
additions of sugar when the pure grape must is so much 
cheaper. While I think the practice of using pure grape 
sugar is perfectly harmless in Europe and the East, and even 
necessary to make a good, sound wine, to use it here would 
be folly, as we can make it without such additions, and fur- 
nish a cheaper and better article thereby. Here again, Cali- 
fornia can excel the world. 

DEFECTIVE FERMENTATION. 

It is or rather has been, frequently the case in this State 
especially in some seasons, when the summers were extraor- 
dinarily dry, followed by very hot weather during the vintage, 
that wines, especially the red, were "stuck" as the common 
expression is during fermentation; that is, fermentation set in 
very violently, running up the temperature in the fermenting 
tanks to over a hundred degrees, then suddenly stopped, 
when the must yet retained from three to eight per cent, of 
free sugar. In 1885, this was especially the case, and per- 
haps one-sixth of all the wines in certain sections did not 
"go through" as the common expression is. 

The cause of this can perhaps be found in the long period 
of drought, when the grapes at last ripened suddenly and 
rather unnaturally, with many shrivelled berries, especially in 
the Zinfandel. The product was sluggish, and the fermen- 
tation properties not sufficiently active to carry fermentation 
through evenly and correctly. Add to this very hot weather, 
and the mistaken idea which seemed to prevail, that the 
most rapid fermentation was also the most thoroiigli. The 
mash, generally confined under the abominable perforated 
head<, or still worse, left exposed without stirring, rapidly 
rose to a degree of heat above, which amounted to more 
than boiling, killed the germs of fermentation, and turned 



302 '^iRAPE CULTURE AND 

the sugar into caramel, insoluble in fermentation. The lower 
part of the tank was far below the upper in temperature, air 
was entirely excluded, and the result was wine which obstin- 
ately remained sweet. I may state with some gratification 
and pride, that under my method of frequent stirring, aera- 
tion and keeping the temperature even from top to bottom, I 
did not have a single case of imperfect fermentation, and pro- 
duced as good wines as any in the market, sound and well 
fermented. 

The reader will perceive, that in this case, as in most 
others, an ounce of preventative is better than a pound of 
cure. The most simple means to prevent such occurrences 
are the following: 

1. Do not let your grapes get over ripe, but pick them 
when they show from 22 to 24^ on Balling's scale. . 

2. Have an even temperature from 65 to 75, not exceed- 
ing 80 in your fermenting room. 

3. If the grapes come in too hot, let them stand over 
night, and crush in the morning, when cool. 

4. In fermenting, stir frequently and thoroughly, so as to 
aerate the whole mass, and equalize the temperature. 

5. Should you not be able to ,work your grapes quick 
enough, and they run over 25^, reduce to 25 by an addition 
of water to the mash, before fermenting. 

If you observe all these simple rules, you will have no 
trouble in fermentation. 

But if, by some oversight or other, a cask or tank should 
get "stuck," or refuse to go through, the simplest remedy is 
to take fresh grapes of certain light varieties, for instance 
Burger or second crop Zinfandel, crush them, and throw the 
refractory must over them without delay, taking care to mix 
it thoroughly with the fresh grapes. This will incite fresh 
fermentation, and if you work the whole mass thoroughly, or 
aerate it, they will generally '-go through" without trouble. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. ^ 303 

This is better than all the remedies suggested by wine doc- 
tors: brewers' yeast, flour, tartaric acid, plaster and tannin; 
and will give a better and more natural wine than any of them. 

But you need not fear if you observe the above rules, 
that such will be the case, unless you are entirely unable to 
regulate the temperature of your winery. If this is the case, 
remedy the defect in some way or other before the next 
vintage is upon you. In six successive seasons, in which I 
have made wine in this State, I have not had a single case of 
imperfect fermentation yet, nor need my readers have it, if 
they will work rationally and carefully. 

Since writing the above, over two months ago, another 
season of difficult fermentation has passed, and millions of 
gallons of wine have obstinately remained sweet. While I 
have nothing further to add to the advice already given, the 
account of experiments by Prof. Hilgard, given below, will 
fully confirm the views given, and serve to throw much addi- 
tional light on this important subject. 

Complaints of difficult fermentations have been very gen- 
eral during the vintage just passed, and a great deal of red 
wine especially has refused to "go dry" within the usual or 
any reasonable limit .of time. It has long been my convic- 
tion that in the vast majority of cases the difficulties com- 
plained of arise from excessive heat during and particularly at 
the beginning of fermentation. At the end of last year's 
vintage, a number of comparative fermentations were made 
at the University Viticultural Laboratory, partly with a view 
to testing this question; but it being late in the season, the 
only grapes available for the purpose, viz : second-crop Zin- 
fandel, were not of a character to test the point, having high 
acid (.65) and low sugar (21.6); and the high temperature 
attained seemed to accelerate, rather than retard, the ferment- 
ing process. This season, sixteen fermentation experiments, 
parallel with those of last year, have been made, and the re- 

20 



304 GRAPE OULTURK AND 

suits of some of these throw so much light upon the causes 
of "difficult fermentations'* that it seems proper to give 
publicity to them in advance of any detailed report on the 
whole series. 

Equal charges of 200 pounds each were fermented in 50- 
gallon tanks, save that in the hot fermentations 25 pounds 
more were used, in order that the rise of temperature might 
be favored by greater mass. In the hot chamber a tempera- 
ture of between 85° and 90° was maintained ; while in the 
fermenting-room in which the other charges were being treated, 
the temperature was kept as nearly as possible at 75°. The 
grape employed was a fine lot of Carignane, courteously do- 
nated for the purpose by A. J. Salazar, Jr., of Mission San 
Jose. The must showed 25.75 per cent, by spindle and 53 
per cent, or a little over fvve pro niille, of acid. 

Of the tanks in the fermenting-room filled with mash at 
63°, three, treated by usual methods, went practically dry 
and were sent to press on the seventh day ; the first to finish 
being the one with "floating cover and twice-daily stirring," 
the method adopted in the laboratory for general purposes. 
The highest temperature reached by any of these was 95°. 

On that day (7th) the two tanks in the hot chamber, which 
had in setting been warmed up to 86^ and at first fermented 
most violently, and in forty-three hours attained a maximum 
temperature of 106^, had come down to very slow movement; 
the actual solid contents were found to be a little over 12 per 
cent. It being obvious that they would not "go through" 
under existing conditions, the two charges were divided into 
four parts, of which one was left in the hot chamber and 
treated as before, in order to observe the outcome. The 
others served for experiments to test the best mode of reviv- 
ing the fermentation in the lower temperature of the ferment- 
ing room. 

One portion received 1% per cent, of pomace, freshly. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 305 

pressed from one of the other tanks, and well stirred in ; 
floating cover put on and well stirred three times daily. Fer- 
mentation soon revived and went on slowly, but steadily, 
until the seventh day, when the charge was sent to press, 
practically dry. 

One, a double portion of 191^ gallons, was mixed with 2J/< 
gallons of condensed Zinfandel must set at 21 per cent, with 
distilled water, and having been allowed to pass into active 
fermentation before mixing with the "stuck" mash. Fer- 
mentation soon set in and slowly but steadily carried it to 
dryness on the 17th day, being 8 days from the time the fresh 
must was added. 

The fourth portion was left without any addition but was 
from the time it left the hot chamber vigorously aerated, by 
means of an air pump three times a day. Fermentation soon 
revived, and the charge went dry and was sent to press at the 
end of the 6th day, from the time it was removed from the 
hot chamber, being nearly two days in advance of the other 
tanks treated with pomace and must respectively, but aerated 
only by ordinary " foulage/' with cross-peg stirrer. 

It thus appears that simple aeration, without the addition 
of any new yeast, was at that stage of the mash that had 
"stuck" in consequence of overheating, the most effectual 
mode of reviving and completing the fermentation. The 
pressed wine had the same acid percentage as the original 
must, and is free from acetic taint. 

As for the portion that remained in the hot chamber, it 
continued a feeble action for some time, but on the fourteenth 
day from the setting of the mash it had practically stopped. 
It was then removed to the fermenting-room, and after cool- 
ing down to 75^ and aerating by the pump, a faint revival of 
fermentation took place for thirty-six hours. Then the cap 
sank and the tank was "dead." The day after, the odor 
and taste of milk-sourness became so patent that the mess 



306 GRAPE CUI/rURE AND 

was sent to press with over 9 per cent, of solids, as a dead 
failure, on the seventeenth day ; a woful, but in practice but 
too familiar example of the results of hot fermentations. 

I reserve for the future a detailed discussion of the subject, 
in connection with other experiments, but the main points 
illustrated may be briefly thus stated : 

1. While musts of low sugar contents and high acid may 
be successsully rushed through to dryness at a high tempera- 
ture and make a sound wine, the same is not true of those 
having high sugar and low acid ; the margin of difference be- 
tween the two cases is a very narrow one, both as to temper- 
ature, acid, and sugar, and hence a few days of hot "norther "^ 
may easily turn the scale. 

2. When the temperature has not been excessively high 
and not maintained too long, simple aeration by means of a 
pump or blower may revive it at a lower temperature. Sound 
pomace, or fresh fermenting must, are additions to be used 
when available or necessary. 

While these facts and principles are not new to experts, I 
have thought it worth while to re-establish them by facts and 
figures, and to offer them as a substitute for the supposed 
mysteries of "difficult fermentations" that have so vexed 
our winemakers. The vatting of hot and over ripe grapes 
and the omission of proper aeration of the mass, while allow- 
ing the surface to acetify, are responsible for nine-tenths of 
all unsoundness in California wines. 

E. W. HiLGARD. 

Berkeley, November, 17, 1887. 

(d) LIQUEUR WINES OR SWEET WINES. CHAMPAGNE. 

This may be said to comprise all the sweet wines, also for- 
tified wines. These may be made naturally, by leaving the 
grapes on the vines until over ripe, when, if the must is over 
28° Balling, it is apt to retain part of the sugar unfermented. 



Vine-making in California. 307 

This is done in Europe in several ways, either by letting the 
grapes hang on the vines until very ripe, and the small ber- 
ries are half dried, in some cases even picking out the ripe 
berries with needles, and then exposing them to the sun for 
several days, upon screens, or straw; they are then crushed 
and pressed. The must of course, being so very rich and 
syrupy, will take a long time to ferment and develop, longer, 
very likely, than our impatient people would be willing to 
wait for them. It is in this manner that the celebrated 
Tokay is made in Hungary. 

As I have never had much to do with making sweet or 
fortified wines, I shall not go into any very elaborate de- 
scriptions of the process, which come hardly within the 
province of the smaller wine producer, for whom this book is 
calculated. I shall only refer to the methods in a general 
"svay, especially as I do not profess to be a judge of these 
wines, nor partial to them. In fact, I do not consider them 
wines, in the true sense of the word, which with* me is the 
pure, fermented juice of the grape. But as they are con- 
sumed to a large extent, I do not feel justified in omitting 
them altogether, leaving my readers to inform themselves if 
they wish to make them, from a more competent source than 
I claim to be. 

Angelica or Siveet Mn sea fell. This is generally made 
from Muscat of Alexandria, by letting the grapes get very 
ripe, then crushing and pressing them, and as soon as this is 
done, add about a quart of grape brandy of the usual strength 
to each gallon of must, also stirring in about a gallon of 
fresh lime to each loo gallons of the must. This suppresses 
fermentation, and clarifies the wine within two days. As 
soon as it is clear, it is drawn off into casks, which are filled; 
and only needs ageing to make it more palatable. The 
German Muscateller or Frontignau, if treated similarly, 
will make a much more delicately flavored wine, and it 



308 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

is from this grape ■ the French make their celebrated 
Muscat Lunel, which sells at $3.00 per bottle. We 
would hardly obtain such prices here, however, even if we 
made it better, for it would not be French, nor " far fetched 
and dear bought!" Yet it deserves a trial, and very fine 
wines of a similar character have already been produced here. 

Sherries and Port^ are generally made by fortifying with al- 
cohol up to eighteen to twenty-three per cent. Mr. Crabb 
adds grape syrup to his port, made by boiling down sweet 
must. Sherries are then kept in a heated room with a tem- 
perature of 140 to 150 F., for three to four months, a so- 
called oven; and thus acquire the aged taste and flavor which 
their admirers fancy. It would not be of any special interest 
to the reader to enter into a description of the Bodega and 
Solera system, by which sherries and ports are made and aged 
in Spain and Portugal, as I do not think that Californians will 
ever be willing to w^ait ten years before they can thus ripen 
and sell their wines, and go into the tedious process of estab- 
lishing them. I believe, however, that there are many of our 
grapes which acquire the sherry flavor simply by aging in the 
cask. I have tasted Mission at Mr. Dresels twenty years old 
which had it in a marked degree, and w^hich I would prefer 
to most of the artificially made sherries I have tried. This 
is especially the case with many of our white wine varieties 
when they get very ripe. The Sultana, for instance, develops 
some of it even the second and third season, and it may thus 
not be difficult to produce a Jiatural sherry, preferable to the 
artificial, by simply aging the wine of such varieties, which 
would seem to me to be a more proper and cleaner way than 
exposing them to the influence of air and mold, by leaving 
them in casks partly full and with their bungs open, as in. 
Europe. 

Champagne or Sparkling Wine. There are also two meth- 
ods to produce this, the so-called natural way, by which car- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 309 

bonic acid gas is developed in the bottle by adding syrup and 
agii:g it, and the artificial, by which the wine is impregnated 
with it in about the same manner as soda or other artificial 
mineral waters. Mr. Arpad Harazthy, I think, is the only 
one who now follows the first in this State, his "Eclipse " is 
well known and generally well received by the people, al- 
though many assert that the artificial is just as good and pure. 
I can really not see where the great difference is, as in both 
cases the "liquor" is added artificially, and both are certain- 
ly not///r^ ivines, according to the true definition of the word. 
As long as they contain nothing deleterious to health, and 
the people enjoy them and are willing to consume and pay for 
them, they are a legitimate branch of our wine industry, and 
should be protected and fostered as such, whether made in 
theso-called natural way, and sold at sixteen dollars per case, 
or in the artificial, and sold at ten dollars. There are several 
firms engaged in making the latter to a certain extent in this 
State, and Mr. Werner of New York City is manufacturing it 
there from California wine, which is reshipped, and consumed 
here to some extent. 

Grape Milk. The same firm has also put an article on the 
market which is called Grape Milk. This is simply must in 
which fermentation has been suppressed by a process best 
known to himself, and which is sold for commercial and other 
purposes, to those who think it inconsistent with temperance 
and Christianity to use the fermented juice of the grape. 
There are many methods of suppressing fermentation in must; 
sulphuring, adding salycilic acid, etc., but I do not think 
any of them entirely harmless, and all more or less injurious 
to health. I believe, if He, whose followers these men and 
women profess to be, saw any harm in the moderate use of 
pure wine, He would not have changed water into this bev- 
erage, of which the master of the feast said that the best had 
been kept to the last, nor would He have instituted it as one 



310 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

of the Sacraments at the last sup))er He took with his follow- 
ers. I do not think that what was pure to Him, the purest of 
all, can be impure to us, who feebly try to follow in His foot- 
steps, provided we use it with moderation, as it should be 
taken. 



CHAPTER VI. 

AFTER TREATMENT OF THE YOUNG WTNE. RACKING. 

As soon as the must has fully gone through fermentation, 
and has become perfectly quiet, we call it wine. In short, as 
soon as fermentation has converted the sugar into alcohol, the 
must has lost its sweet and pungent taste on the tongue, and 
is beginning to deposit its lees, instead of throwing them to 
the surface, as it does while fermenting, it may be called wine. 
The plainest indication of this stage is, when, in holding your 
ear over the bung hole of the cask or tank, you hear none of 
that hissing noise which accompanies fermentation; and the 
wine, by drawing a sample from the top, which can easily be 
done with a small hose, or a liquor thief, does not produce 
that pungent, prickly taste which characterizes it while fer- 
menting. It is time then to close the bung, driving it in 
lightly, however; in case any after fermentation should set in, 
which might injure the cask. In a week or so more, it can 
be driven in tight, so as to exclude the air. But before this 
is done, it will be well to fill up with the must separately fer- 
mented for that purpose. Fill the cask up to the bung, either 
with the wooden funnel, or a can with a long pipe, bent at the 
end and made specially for that purpDSe. (Fig. 31^) 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



311 




Fio. 8U. 

If the wine is yet in the fermenting room, it can be drawn 
off and removed to the cellar proper, for further development; 
although, if well and fully fermented, it will be perfectly safe 
in the fermenting room. This first racking, however, had 
better be deferred until it has become clear, and deposited 
most of the lees at the bottom of the cask, which is seldom 
the case before two months. The old idea that the lees were 
the "mother of the wine," and necessary to it until February 
and March, is fully exploded now. The lees are nothing but 
the excrements of the wine, the impurities contained in the 
must, which fall to the bottom and are deposited there. As 
soon as this has been done, the wine will gain nothing by re- 
maining on them; on the contrary, the sooner it is taken 
from them, the better for it. 

But no matter whether on the lees or off, the casks should 
be kept /////; and it is necessary that this be done once a 
week; from a small cask kept for the purpose. It is not 
necessary, however, if the casks have been filled up once, 
that this be done with the same variety of wine. Any good, 
sound white wine will do to fill up all the white wines; and 
one also for the red. Of course it would not do to fill white 
wines with red, as that would have a tendency to color them; 
but if the red wines have color sufficient, a filling up with 
white wines will do no harm, but rather give them finish and 
smoothness. 

If the- wines are kept in tight casks, have sufficient alcoholic 
strength, and filled up every week, there is not much danger 



312 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

of mould; or as some call it, very inappropriately, fioiuers on 
the wine. Should it however happen, that the young wine 
shows a white film on top, fill the cask so full that this film or 
mould which floats on the surface, runs out at the bung, and 
after it has all run out, bung tight. 

RACKINC. 

As soon as the young wine is clear, it can, and in fact, 
ought to be racked. For this purpose we need a. a clean 
cask of about the same dimensions as the one you wish to 
commence with. b. Faucet of sufficient dimensions, c, A 
small tub to put under the cask and faucet, d. Either a 
pump or buckets to transfer the wine into the empty cask. 
f. If the latter, the wooden funnell referred to before. If the 
former, sufficient hose to reach from faucet to pump, and 
from pump to cask. Of course the empty cask must be clean, 
sweet and tight, is placed where the wine is to remain until 
racked again, and is laid on the supports so that the front end 
with the hole for tapping is, say tw^o inches, lower than the 
end next to the wall. 

Some rack through a siphon (Fig. 33) from the bung hole, 
^ but I prefer the faucet ; as the 

hole for it is just about, or ought to 
be, where the lees commence, and 
the bottom of the clear wine, which 
cannot be so accurately guaged 
with the siphon, and therefore is 
Fig. 33. more apt to disturb the sediment. 

For racking large casks, it is also well to have a jack, (Fig. 
34) to raise the cask when it has run down to the level of the 
faucet. Now, the cask being in position, we are ready for 
the operation. Loosen the bung first, by a tap or two with 
the mallet, for, if this is not done, the air entering at the 
top or faucet hole, will disturb the lees. Then take the 




WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 



31; 




faucet in your left hand, a bucket or tub between your 
knees to receive the wine which may spurt out, loosen the 
plug with the mallet, until you can draw it 
with your hand, and as soon as you withdraw 
the plug insert the faucet, which of course 
should be closed, and drive it in firmly with 
the mallet. Now^ have a glass handy, and try 
whether the wine runs clear and limpid. If 
not, open the faucet only about half way, and 
let the wine run slowly, testing it from time to 
time until it comes clear. Then shut the fau- 
cet, and put the turbid wine separately into a 
cask or keg. It will soon clear, and can then 
be drawn off again. F'^^- 3-I- 

If you rack with buckets or cans, it is a good practice for 
very young wine to open the faucet but partially, so that the 
wine comes in a spray or circle. It is thus somewhat aerated, 
and the oxygen will help the final clarification and tend to 
ripen it sooner. Avoid as much as possible to shut the fau- 
cet suddenly, the check is apt to disturb the wine, but have 
two buckets or cans, slipping the empty one under the faucet 
and removing the full one. A little practice will soon give 
the necessary dexterity. If the cask is high, you want an 
assistant to empty the cans into the funnel. 

Pumps are much more convenient and not very costly. 
The accompaning cut shows a very convenient pump, to be 
had at Woodin & Little, San Francisco, and the manner in 
which they are operated. They save a great deal of labor, 
and for operations at all extensive, will pay for themselves in 
a very short time. (Fig. 35). 

When the cask is about empty, and the stream through the 
faucet diminishes, try frequently whether the wine runs clear. 
As soon as it becomes cloudy, shut the faucet, and put the 
cloudy wine into the separate cask for that purpose. Should 



314 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



it Still be clear, when run off, shut the faucet, and tip the cask 
gently, either with the jack or by hand, say six inches at the 




^IG. 3^ 

further end. Then try again and if it still runs clear, it can 
be added to the first. The cloudy wine also should only be 
used as long as it runs somewhat limpid ; as soon as it be- 
comes thick it should be shut off. If the wine should be 
mouldy on top, it must be closely watched ; for as soon as it 
runs down to the level of the faucet, the mould will run out. 
This can be filtered by laying a clean flannel cloth over the 



WIXE-MAKINCi IN ('ALIFURNIA. 815 

funnel, which will retain the mould. But with proper care 
this will only happen with very weak, light bodied wines. 

Then withdraw the faucet, and let the sediment run out 
through the hole, or if your cask has a manhole or door, as 
all over 300 gallon capacity ought to have, you can unscrew^ 
it, and take the lees out. They can be used for brandy, but 
should for that purpose either be distilled immediately, or 
kept in air tight casks or tanks until all are ready. 

When all the lees that will run out have been emptied, put sev- 
eral buckets of clear water into the empty cask, shaking it thor- 
oughly, so that all parts are reached. Repeat this until the water 
runs from the bung perfectly clear and limpid. For small 
casks the rinsing chain is very useful (Fig. 31) as the sedi- 
ment is very slimy, and if any remains on the sides of the 
cask, it is apt to injure the wine. Large casks with manholes, 
can of course be brushed clean inside. Remember that clean- 
liness is absolutely necessary, if you want clear, pure tasting 
wine. You cannot have it without this. 

A great many sulphur all the casks before using them, es- 
pecially white wines. It is well enough to use sulphur to 
keep empty casks sweet and free from mold, but they ought 
to be rinsed with clear water before using. Unless white wine 
is dull, and lacks spirit, I think sulphuring a positive injury, 
which is apt to destroy or at least vitiate that delicacy which 
should be their characteristic. If otherwise good and sound, 
they need no sulphur to make them so. To red wines it is a 
positive injury, as it deadens their color and decreases it. 

Having racked and cleaned one cask, we can refill it with 
the next; and should the first not be quite full, fill it with 
the same or a similar wine, and so go on until all is finished. 

The principal rules to observe are: 

I St. Choose bright and clear weather, and avoid damp 
and rainy days, as well as storms. 

2d. Do not rack until your wine is clear, unless it is to re- 



316 . GRAPE CULTURE AND 

move it to a different temperature, or you need the casks for 
further fermentatiou. 

3d. Do not rack when the vine is in bloom, or when the 
fruit commences to color. 

4th. Do not have the wine exposed to the air for any 
length of time. 

5th. Take care to do it thoroughly, and keep it clear from 
all traces of sediment. 

6th. During either very hot or very cold weather, keep the. 
door of cellar or fermenting room closed, so as to avoid 
changes of temperature. 

Generally speaking, racking is necessary only twice a year, 
if performed thoroughly and well. New wines should be 
racked in December, or as soon as clear, then again in Feb- 
ruary or March, and again in August. This will of course 
vary with the climate, and no fixed rule can be given. Un- 
less the wine has been handled and racked very carefully, a 
slight fermentation takes place in June or July, and as soon 
as it becomes entirely quiet again, it should be racked. Very 
much depends on the thoroughness of the operation, when 
performed the first and second time. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 317 



CHAPTER VIL 

- CLARIFICATION, FILTERING AND FINING. 

If wine is sound and well made, it seldom requires any- 
thing more but careful racking, and this is certainly preferable. 
If, however, from some cause it will not clear of itself, it may 
become necessary to do so artificially. We can do this by 
two different methods, mechanically by filters, or chemically 
and mechanically by fining. 

FILTERING. 

This acts simply mechanically, as the wine is pressed in 
some way through a substance which acts as a retainer for the 
impurities contained in it. Among those most commonly in 
use are paper filters, where a strong pressure forces the wine 
from above through the pores of blotting paper, also through 
felt and woolen bags. The one most perfect in its action, 
and which has at the same time the advantage of low cost, 
automatic action, and being cleaned easily, I have seen at the 
inventors, Mr. A. Beck, corner 6th and Mission sts., San Fran- 
cisco. I have also seen wines which had run through it, and 
compared them with the same wine before filtering, and can tes- 
tify to their great improvement from the process. The inventor 
deserves great credit for his ingenuity and skill, which has re- 
sulted in an apparatus within the reach of every one, and 
which ought to be in every cellar. (Fig. 37) represents the 
apparatus in use. The wine to be filtered is contained in 
cask A, which is elevated on a platform a few feet above the 
filter, B. The wine runs through a faucet and hose, into the 
bottom of the filter, which contains a number of circular 
flannel sacks, drawn over spiral springs to keep them sus- 



318 



GRAPE CULTURE AND 



pended. The wine raises in the filter by the pressure of the 
fluid from the cask above, is pressed through the bags, rises 




Fk;. o7. 

to a false bottom which holds them in position, and flows 
from there through a hose D, into the cask E, below. It 
takes about 12 hours, with a filter of 10 gallon capacity, to 
filter a puncheon. of 160 gallons, and the apparatus, when once 
started at night, needs no looking after until the next morn- 
ing, when the cloudiest wine has been transformed into a 
liquid as clear and bright as the sun. The sacks can be 
easily cleaned, by forcing water from above through them, or 
taken out and w^ashed for further operations, I have been 
thus explicit because I think the invention destined to super- 
cede all finings as well as all other mechanical processes, and 
be of real benefit to every wine maker, while its cheapness 
brings it within the reach of every one. In fact I think it so 
perfect that it would be superfluous to describe other filters. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 319 

FINING WITH CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES. FOR WHITE WINE. 

Gelatine and Isinglass are the most common and best fin- 
ings for white wine. The first is prepared frorii the bones, 
skins and tendons of animals, and comes in tablets or sheets 
generally. It is one of the most powerful of finings, and 
takes a great deal of tannin and color with it, should there- 
fore not be used for red wines, except when it is desired to 
deprive them of an excess of tannin and color. It precipi- 
tates more sediment than most other finings, is apt to leave 
a bad taste in the wine, and wines fined with it should be 
racked from the finings as soon as cleared. It is generally 
only used to clarify common white wines, and if they are 
rather flat, tannin should be used with it. Take about one 
ounce for one hundred gallons, and soak a few hours in 
water. Then dissolve it in a dish over a slow fire with a 
little water, which, however, should not be allowed to boil, 
and stirring constantly. 

Isinglass or Fish Glue is made from the bladder of the 
sturgeon, and comes mostly from Russia. This is the best 
fining for white wine. Take one ounce to one hundred 
gallons of wine, break it up by pounding wdth a hammer on 
a block of wood into small fragments, so that it will easily 
dissolve. Put in an earthen vessel and pour enough of the 
wine to be fined over it to cover it; and add a little more 
after an hour or two, when the first has been absorbed. 
When it has become a jelly, in about twenty-four hours, it 
can be thinned by adding more wine, and working it by the 
hand until entirely dissolved, then strain it through a piece of 
linen, using pressure enough to squeeze out the mucilage. 
It should be whipped or beaten, and more wine added if too 
thick. It can be kept in bottles for some time when pre- 
pared, by adding a little brandy. 

ALBUMINOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Among these are the blood of animals, milk, etc., but I 
21 



320 GRAPE CUL,TURE AND 

do not recommend them, as the first is apt to leave a bad 
taste, and the second may cause lactic fermentation. The 
white of eg'gs is the best of albuminous substances, and is 
mostly used for clarifying red wines. It coagulates by the 
action of the alcohol and tannin, and forms a precipitate 
heavier than the liquid, carrying with it as it falls, the matters 
in suspension in the wine. Only fresli eggs should be used, 
but the yolks must be carefully kept out, as they discolor the 
wine. Take a dozen eggs for a hundred gallons, and beat 



them up by whipping thoroughly, together with a small quan 
tity of wine before using. 

For weak wines, containing so little spirit that the finings ! 
do not act, alcohol must be added. For wines that are 
deficient in tannin, this should be added; for upon the proper 
quantity of this, and the alcoholic strength, depend the ac- 
tion of the finings. If the wines contain enough of alcohol, 
as they generally do here, and the finings do not act. the 
cause is generally a deficiency of tannin; and sufficient must 
be added to produce the desired effect. One-half to one 
ounce to the ordinary tannin of commerce is generally suf- 
ficient. Dissolve one-half pound in a quart of strong alco- 
hol, by shaking thoroughly in a bottle of double the size. 
When it has been mixed twenty-four hours it is filtered, and 
one gill of the solution contains one ounce of tannic acid. 

After the finings have been prepared as above, two or three,; 
gallons are drawn from the cask which is to be treated, by 
siphon or a small hose from the bung hole, the finings poured 
in, and thoroughly stirred with the wine. This may be done 
•with a stick split at the end into several prongs, or by a brush 
formed by bristles or flexible wire. (Fig. 38). The wine 
drawn out should then be filled in again, until the cask is 
perfectly full, and left to rest until the wine is bright. The 
time in which this takes place varies from two to four weeks, 
three weeks being about the average. But it should not be 



\VINE-MAKINC4 IN CALIFORNIA. 



321 



the finings after it has cleared, as ev-en the best and 
purest are apt to impart a disagreeable 
flavor, if the wine is left on them too long. 
I trust that the filter described may do 
away with finings altogether, and thus save 
expense, unnecessary labor, and risk of 
any taste from the finings. We want to 
furnish pure 7vine, the most perfect and 
pure we can have, to the world; and any- 
thing which will enable us to do so within 
the shortest possible time, should be wel- 
comed and adopted by our wine makers 
as well as by the trade. 




CHAPTER VIIL 



AGING WINE. 



We hear a great deal on the subject of aging wine, on Cali- 
fornia wines being too young when they are sold, etc. There 
is no doubt a great deal of truth in this, for it is a well recog- 
nized fact that strong, full bodied wines require a longer 
period for their full development than lighter wines; and as 
our wines are of the former class, it is but natural that they 
should require time to bring out their best qualities. But to 
understand this fully, we must understand first the true mean- 
ing of the term ''old wine." 

I call a wine "old" when it is fully developed, when it is 
perfectly clear and bright, having deposited all the impurities 
it contains when young, and has obtained the highest degree 



322 (JRAPE CULTURE AND 

of perfection, has fully developed its flavor and bouquet, irt 
short, when it has arrived at full maturity. If bottled at that 
period, it will retain these qualities and perhaps even improve 
for some time, as it is made as near air tight as possible, but 
we cannot expect any further improvement in casks, and it is 
not a remunerative article to keep after this. 

Thus it often happens that a certain wine is older, that is 
more developed, at six months or a year, than another is or 
will be in three years; owing to the treatment it may have re- 
ceived. Let us consider the means we have to age a wine, 
in succession, and we will know better how to attain age as 
soon as possible. 

Fermentation. Complete fermentation is certainly the first 
step towards complete development; without it we cannot 
expect to have a wine which will develop rapidly. If this 
progresses regularly and thoroughly, not too fast or too slow, 
so that the wine is dry in six to eight days from pressing, 
there will be little trouble afterwards. Air treatment will do 
a great deal to help this along, and should be applied, in red 
wines by frequent foulage or stirring, in white wines by keep- 
ing them in a well-regulated temperature, and if they show 
any sluggishness, by conducting air through them by the 
D,Heureuse process, racking in the manner indicated, by 
letting the wine run through the faucet in a spiral manner, . 
or through the rose of a common watering pot, so that every ^ 
particle comes into contact with the air. Of course, this is 
only to be applied while fermentation is still going on; when j 
this is over, it would work to the detriment of the wine, in- [ 
stead of improving it. / 

Temperature. This is an important agent in aging wine 
after it is thoroughly fermented. Wines kept at an even 
temperature, summer and winter, will improve more and 
faster, than those subjected to sudden changes. Hence the ^ 
difficulty of properly aging wmes in very hot climates. 



» ) 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 323 

Filtering and fining. These are important agents in aging 
wines, by removing all the substances which would induce a 
second or third fermentation. 

Heating. Pasteur has invented a process by which the 
wine is subjected for a short time to a heat of 130 to 140 F. 
This is on the theory that when wine has come to a certain 
stage of development, the heat kills all the germs of further 
fermentation. This, however, excludes all further improve- 
ment also, and while it may be advisable to apply to com- 
mon wines, I would certainly not apply it to fine wines. 

As a general rule, if wine is well and thoroughly fermented, 
and well treated afterwards, in racking, clarification if neces- 
sary, the casks are kept well filled, and at an even tempera- 
ture, it will not be found necessary to resort to any more 
artificial means to age it. Good treatment will often pro- 
duce an older, i. e. more developed wine in one year, than 
the same variety, but under slovenly treatment, will furnish 
in three. In fact, slovenly treatment will not and ought not 
to make, good wines; while careful handling will always pro- 
duce them. It is the old question of the survival and suc- 
cess of the fittest, which is eminently verified in wine making. 

There is a great difference also in the wines as to the time 
when they reach their highest perfection. Wines rather thin 
and light, deficient in body and tannin, as also in color, will 
develop sooner and reach their highest state of development 
in a much shorter time, than those rich in sugar, flavor, color, 
tannin and alcohol. In fact all the grand, fine wines need a 
longer period to reach perfection, but will also retain it much 
longer than the reverse. It takes more time naturally to bring 
out their high quality, but when it does come, it is to stay. 
Thus it may be safely asserted that the general run of Zinfan- 
dels and Burgers will not improve after two or three years at 
the furthest, while the Cabernet Sauvignons, Chauche Noir 
i(or true Burgundy), Riesling and Traminer will be best after 



324 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

two years, and keep improving as they grow older. I have 
tasted Rieslings and Traminers in this State, eight to ten 
years old, which it would be difficult to excel any where for 
flavor, richness and mellowness. Who ever has such wines, 
and can afford to keep them, will certainly not loose by doing 
so; while the producer of lighter wines will do well to sell as 
soon as he receives a fair offer. Let us not forget that it is 
not age alone which gives wines their quality and their name- 
there must be something else to make them grand wines. 
Small wines in fact have a sprightliness when young, which 
makes them appear better than they really are. They will 
sell best as long as this remains, and become flat and dull with 
age. 



CHAPTER IX. 



DISEASES OF WINE. 

Here again, preventative is better than cure. Wine pro- 
perly made and handled, will not become diseased in our cli- 
mate, where we always have sugar in the grape to produce it 
of sufficient alcoholic strength to keep it. In this respect, 
though the French may beat us as ivine doctors, we have the 
advantage of them in the perfection of our product, which 
needs no doctoring, if well made and treated. 

But still we have patients enough in our State, made so by 
improper treatment, and although hardly competent to pre- 
scribe for them, as my wines were generally healthy, I will 
try and give some advice in cases of emergency, which may 
arise even in the best regulated wine cellars. 



WINE-MAXIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 325 

Earthy flavor. Sometimes, young wines have this, when 
the grapes were grown on poorly drained or very rich, or 
heavily manured land. The best cure for them are frequent 
rackings, they should not be left long on the pomace in fer- 
menting, and as soon as passably clear and quiet, they should- 
be either filtered or fined energetically. If rather flat and 
deficient in tannin, they should have some tannin added, 
about an ounce for loo gallons, with the finings, which will 
help to deposit the insoluble matter, and then racked. Re- 
peated rackings will do much to remove it. 

Greenness. This is caused by an excess of tartaric acid, 
and gives a sour taste to the wine, resembling unripe grapes. 
It is caused by picking the grapes too soon. It need not 
happen here, as w^e can always have our grapes ripe enough, 
but is often found in the wines made from second crop. It 
will gradually disappear with age, after the first two rackings, 
when the tartaric acid falls to the bottom and sides of the 
casks, and chrystallizes there. It is sometimes the case that a 
heavy bodied wine, containing little acid, can be blended 
with such wine to mutual advantage. In this case, make a 
test with a small quantity first, mixing it in a glass, until you 
have the proportions for a blend to benefit both, so that you 
can work understandingly, taking as a rule, the benefit which 
the better wine receives from the blend, not the advantages to 
the inferior. Sometimes, surprising results are obtained in 
this way, but it takes long practice and a good tongue to pro- 
duce good blends. However, each wine maker should strive 
to be proficient in the art, without which his practice is still 
incomplete. This is by far pieferable to adding lime or other 
alkaline substances, which neutralize the acid, but are un- 
healthy and should not be used. 

Roughness. Caused by excess of tannin, and is not always 
a fault, but an excess of a good quality in young wines, which 
will disappear in time. It can be avoided in fermentation. 



326 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

by taking the wine from the pomace sooner, as indicated be- 
fore. If the rough wine has only astringency, without bitter- 
ness or excessive acid, it will improve very much by age, and 
it is safe to leave it alone. Judicious blending is often very 
valuable also, as for instance blending the wine which may be 
very rough, but contain little acid, with dark color, with one 
that is deficient in tannin, but has abundance of acid, and 
lacks color. 

Sourness. Is generally caused by a too prolonged fermen- 
tation on the skins, or appears in wines that were "stuck" in 
fermentation. It shows acetic acid in the wine, and if this 
is present in any marked degree, so as to become at once per- 
ceptible to the nose or tongue, the best course is to distil such 
wines ; they are hardly worth the trouble of doctoring, and 
will never be quite sound again. It is also caused by ex- 
posure to the air from looseness of the bung, and from using 
soured casks, which impart it at once. If all these are avoided, 
as they should be in a well regulated cellar, there will be no 
milksour, nor pricked wine. Some authors recommend neu- 
tralizing the acidity with chalk or marble dust, but my advice 
to the reader is, to leave these unwholesome practices alone, 
turn your pricked wine into vinegar and brandy, and resolve 
to have no more of it in future. 

Weakness. We are not troubled with this here, if we plant 
the proper varieties. If we have some, however, the proper 
remedy is to blend with a heavy, full wine, or to add alcohol 
or grape brandy, from one to two quarts to each loo gallons. 

Flatness, Moiddiness, o?- Flowers. These only appear in 
neglected or weak wines, and will seldom be found in well 
regulated cellars, or in wines properly made and handled. 
They generally go together, and are the consequence of ex- 
posure to air. If the bung is frequently removed, and the 
cask not kept well filled, the vacuum becomes filled with im- 
pure air, and the wine degenerates, forming a white film or 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 327 

mould on top, which the Germans call kahm, and the En- 
glish writers very unappropriately, I think, iYi^ flowers oi wine, 
for it certainly does not bring forth good fruit, and is any- 
thing but ornamental. The surface of the wine w^hich shows 
them has become flat, acetic, and mould begins to form; and if 
not counteracted at once the wine will spoil. It is generally 
found on wines weak in alcohol, or those that are neglected 
in filling up and bunging. The simplest mechanical means 
of counteracting it is to fill the cask so that it runs over, and 
if this is done gently and slowly the mould will float out on 
the surface of the wine. When no more mould appears, the 
cask is bunged up tight. It will, however, also be necessary 
to rack the wine into a fresh cask which has been newly sul- 
phured, and when the wine has run down to the faucet look 
out closely; if any mould appears, keep the wine separate; or 
if you fill it into the same cask spread a flannel cloth over the 
funnel, and strain the mouldy wine through it. If this is done 
promptly the wine can be saved, but if left in the cask with 
the mould on it, it will soon spoil altogether, becomes flat, 
looses all sprightliness, and acquires a disagreeable, mouldy 
taste. 

Dull bluish or leaden color. Flavor of the lees. This is 
also due to neglect generally, and will seldom appear in well 
regulated cellars. Its cause is generally improper racking, or 
rather neglect of racking at the proper time, or mixing turbid 
wine with the clear at racking, or irregular temperature in the 
cellar, also defective fermentation. Rack into a fresh cask 
well sulphured, and see if they will clarify. If they still re- 
main dull and turbid, it is to be supposed that they lack 
either tannin or alcohol. If the former, it can be added as 
indicated before ; if the latter, a quart of alcohol to every 
twenty gallons. The alcoholometer will show if the wine is 
weak in spirits, and the above proportion is for a wine of eight 
per cent, of alcohol, ten being the lowest normal strength of 



328 ORAPE CULTURE AND 

California wines. If it still remains turbid, after two to three 
weeks, filter or fine heavily, and when the wine is clear, put 
into freshly sulphured casks. Such wine is apt to go into 
putrid decomposition, and should be watched closely ; but 
well fermented and handled wines will not show any of these 
symptoms, and the cellar man is generally to blame for their 
appearance. 

Ropiness or toughness. Its cause is a viscuous fermentation 
in wines, which makes it slimy in appearance, so that it does 
not run freely, but draws in threads. It is caused by an ex- 
cess of albuminous matter, and want of tannin; generally only 
appears in certain white wines, which are very mild naturally. 
It can be cured by the addition of an ounce of tannin to one- 
hundred gallons, dissolved in wine and added in the manner 
of fining, stirring it well, and after two or three weeks, rack it. 
Sometimes lack of tartaric acid is the cause, and certain of 
our best wine grapes, for instance Franken Riesling, which 
are rich in albumen and rather lacking in acidity. A new 
fermentation over the husks of grapes rather high in tannin 
and acidity will also cure it. 

Mouldy taste. This comes from impure casks, and the 
cellar man is to blame for it when it does occur. It can only 
be prevented by cleanliness. The wine should be racked 
into a sweet, clean cask, well sulphured; or fermented again 
over fresh pomace; but will generally retain a trace of it. 

All of these diseases seldom occur if the proper care is 
taken, and I can only reiterate the instructions as to the ut- 
most care in fermentation, cleanliness of all utensils, racking 
at the proper time, and with proper care. If this is done, 
we need have no diseased or defective wines. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 329 



CHAPTER X. 

CUTTING AND BLENDING. 

This is an art in which especially the French excel, and 
which has given them such prominence in the wine market. 
It can not be acquired in a few days, or even a few seasons, 
and yet it is something that every wine maker should under- 
stand, and on which his success in a great measure depends. 
It depends on an intimate knowledge of each variety of the 
grapes he handles, its prominent qualities and its defects, 
and he cannot do any successful blending, before he has 
tried each variety separately, and knows what kind of wine 
it will make by itself. Nor can French and German exper- 
ience avail us much here; as the varieties they use with emi- 
nent success, may give an entirely diiTerent product for us. 
And again, the experience and practice of Northern Califor- 
nia cannot avail in the South, nor be alike every season, as 
each section and each season may and will give a different 
product. 

There are two kinds of blending, before or after fer- 
mentation. The first is done by fermenting the grapes of 
two or three varieties together, picking the grapes on the 
same day, and mixing them in the fermenting vat, or even on 
the press and at crushing. This no doubt is the most natu- 
ral and intimate way of making blended wine, for in fermen- 
tation the union becomes complete, and one variety often 
materially assists the other. For instance, we will suppose a 
case of two varieties, Chauche Oris and Burger. The first, 
when fully ripened, is very rich in sugar, very full bodied, 
rather deficient in acid and tannin. The Burner is lisrht in 



330 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

sugar, has a superabundance of acid and tannin. The first 
is rather sluggish in fermentation, the last ferments easily and 
quickly. Here would be a case for successful blending, and 
there is no question that about one-third of Burger, added to 
two-thirds of Chauche Oris, will make a better wine than 
each by itself. But then a difficulty presents itself in their 
different times of ripening. The Chauche is medium early, 
and the Burger late in ripening; and even the Chauche 
ought not to get dead ripe, but be taken when it shows about 
25° B., when the Burger ought to hang until fully ripe, at 
least a month later. We can, therefore, not ferment them 
together, but must make the wine of each separate, when the 
proper time comes, when each will give us a perfect product, 
or as near perfection as the two grapes will yield, and then 
mix them after fermentation. Now let us suppose another, 
Marsanne and Burger. Here we have a case which we can 
blend in the fermenting vat, because they ripen at the same 
time; or Marsanne and Herbemont, or Marsanne and Clair- 
ette Blanche. All ripen late, Marsanne is very full and 
smooth, lacking acid, with decided and very full flavor; the 
others are sprightly, with rather superabundance of acid and 
tannin. Each by itself will make a desirable wine, but fer- 
mented together with something like one-half Marsanne and 
one-half of Herbemont and Clairette, or two-thirds Marsanne, 
and one-third Burger, will in most seasons produce a nearly 
perfect wine; and "go through" quickly. 

Another case in point. Refosco or " Crabbs Black Bur- 
gundy," as it is better known, has fine color, plenty of acid 
and sugar, fine bouquet, but is rather defective in tannin. 
Grosse Blaue, or Koelner, has little bouquet, but superabun- 
dance of tannin. They ripen at the same time, therefore can 
be blended in the fermenting vat. Very likely two thirds of 
the first, and one third of the latter would make a successful 
blend. But the exact proportions will have to be determined 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 331 

by the experimenter, as no uniform rule can be given to cover 
the differences which location, soil and climate may make in 
the composition of each. 

Zinfandel will blend successfully with many varieties, as it 
has sprightliness, good flavor, and abundance of acid, but 
lacks fullness, smoothness, and in many locations, color. 
Lenoir, Chauche Noir and Mondeuse, also Petit Bouschet 
are good varieties to blend with it. A very fair guide for 
blending in the fermenting vat the next season, is to ferment 
each variety separately, and then making tests in a glass, say 
for instance, when you have separate samples of Marsanne 
and Herbemont, or Clairette Blanche, take four glasses, one 
with pure wine from each, and mix in the two others; take 
for instance one half Marsanne, one half Herbemont, and pour 
them together, changing them from one glass to the other, 
until they are thoroughly mixed. Then compare the mixture 
with each of the pure samples, and see whether it suits your 
taste better than either of them alone. If yet too full, try 
one-third Marsanne, two-thirds Herbemont; if too acid, two- 
thirds Marsanne and one-third Herbemont, always mixing 
well, and comparing with the pure samples. A little practice 
will soon enable you to find the right proportions, and when 
you have determined on these, you are not very apt to go far 
wrong in fermenting them together the next season; and the 
same practice will enable us to successfully blend what we 
already have. Sometimes, three varieties can and ought to 
be used to make a successful blend. For instance, for the 
celebrated Chateau Yquem, three varieties are used, the 
Semillion, Sauvignon Blanc, and Muscadelle de Bordelais. 
But in making these tests, they can only be of value when the 
different wines are in about the same stage of development. 

Again, it may become desirable to blend the product of 
two vintages. One may be full and rich, the other light »nd 
sprightly. The same procedure will show us what to do 



332 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

in such cases, but remember that, when you want to blend 
two different vintages, each should be a finished wine, fully 
fermented and clear, as blending is apt to cause an after fer- 
mentation, if this is not the case. 

The aim in all blending ought to be, to produce a wine as 
pei'fect as ive can attain-, in short, impi'ovement of two really 
good wines, which, however, may yet lack certain qualities 
which the other does possess; 7iot to make 2i poor witie barely 
S2leable by, blending it with a better. If you want to attain 
a name and fame for your product, never sell a poor wine 
under your own name. If any one else can use it, dispose of 
it at a reduced price, or condemn it to the stile. We can al- 
ways make sound, drinkable, good wine; let us resolve to 
produce and sell no other. Blending, if followed as indicated 
above, is an important factor to attain this end. 



CHAPTER XL 

BOTTLING WINE. 



This is rather for the dealer than the producer ; yet every 
producer may want to keep some of his wines in bottles, to 
see how they develop,, and sometimes to keep small quantities 
when racking. I shall not go into this subject elaborately, but 
simply give a few brief rules, which will enable any one to 
keep wine in bottles, without going into the commercial part 
of it, which belongs to the wholesale dealer. 

The wine you want to bottle should be ripe, that is it 
should be perfectly feiinented, clear ?^x\di bright, have its bouquet 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 333 

developed, and not leave a trace of the pungency on the 
^tongue, which is always a sign of slow fermentation. 

The bottles should be perfectly cleaji, and of good glass. 
For all wines resembling hock, take the long slender bottle, 
generally known as hock, for red wines and Sauternes, the 
common claret bottles are used. For cleaning bottles, a com- 
mon brush of hog bristles, put cross ways through a handle of 
strong double wire, does good service, though they can gen- 
erally, if new, be cleaned by rinsing in cool water. 

Use good corks; for on the cork being air tight, and clean 
and fresh, depends the keeping of the wine in a great meas- 
ure. Scald in boiling water first to make them soft, and ex- 
tract all impurities ; let them stand a quarter of an hour until 
they are thoroughly steamed and softened, then drain off the 
hot water, and immerse them in cold clear water. 

For small quantities, no elaborate and costly bottling 
machine is needed, but a single hand machine, consisting of 
a wooden cylinder, with a rim lined with rubber, to fit on the 
neck of the bottle, and lined with tin or zinc inside, will be 
found very convenient. The cork is put in at the top of the 
cylinder, which is placed on the neck of the bottle, a wooden 
pestle put on top, and the cork driven down into the bottle by 
a few blows of a wooden mallet. The bottle should be 
placed on a somewhat elastic substance below ; and as the 
cylinder is narrower below than above, it compresses the cork 
so that it will enter the bottle. They are made by parties in 
San Francisco, Mr. Henry Waas, I think ; and can also be 
found at Justinian Caire. 

You also want a small faucet that will fit the faucet hole of 
your cask or barrel, and is small enough at the end to go into 
your bottles. 

We are now about ready for the operation, provided the 
cask you intend to bottle from, has been placed securely, so 
that no stirring of any deposit can cloud the wine. Open the 



334 GRAPE CULTUKE AND 

bung first, then place a bucket or small tub under the faucet 
hole, remove the plug and drive in the faucet firmly. Ther; 
test the wine with a glass, to see if it is perfectly clear and 
quiet. If not you will have to let it rest for a few days until 
it is, as it is worse than useless to bottle cloudy wine. If 
clear, fill your bottles to within an inch of the cork when 
drove in. It will expedite the operation if one will fill the 
bottles, and another cork them. Sometimes the wine will 
run cloudy at first, but be perfectly clear after a few bottles 
have been drawn. These should be kept separate, and will 
deposit their sediment in a few days, when they can be racked 
again. Drive the cork in to the rim of the bottle, and let the 
wine come to about one inch of it, after the foam has subsided. 
The bottles should then be laid flat on their sides, so that 
the win? will cover the corks. They can be laid on the floor 
of the cellar, or stored in bins made for the purpose, of lattice 
work and boards. These are generally so constructed that 
they will hold a double layer of bottles, which can be placed 
with their necks resting against each other. If securely corked 
with good corks, it is not necessary to seal them, though wine 
dealers either seal or capsule them. But as any one can easily 
inform himself how to fit wine for the market by labeling and 
packing in cases, if he intends to go into that trade, I shall 
not describe all the operations necessary for that purpose, but 
merely confine myself to the subject for domestic use, and to 
keep some samples of peculiar vintages, as each wine maker 
ought to do. 

When the wine has rested for a few weeks, it ought to be 
examined whether it has made any deposit at the lower side 
of the bottle. Should this be the case, care must be taken to 
keep the bottle on the same side, lay it firmly on a board or 
table and draw the cork, letting the wine run off the sediment, 
which imparts a disagreeable taste to the vvine. But if it was 
thoroughly ripe and well clarified or filtered, this will not be 



AVINE-MAKING IN CA J>IFORNM . o6f> 

the case. Red wines however, will generally deposit and loose 
a little of their color with age, and if well handled, can be 
taken off clear. 

The conditions to be observed as to temperature, weather, 
etc., are about the same as have been described in racking, in 
fact bottling is racking, only into smaller receptacles, and for 
greater convenience in handling small quantities for con- 
sumption. 

The exact ////le when wine is ripe for the bottle, cannot be 
determined generally, this must depend on its development. 
Many wines are riper when a year old and more fit for bot- 
tling, than others are at three years old. But it is hardly safe 
to bottle even the most developed wine until it has passed 
through its first summer, as a slight fermentation is apt to set 
in, which must have entirely subsided, before it is fit for the 
bottle. With very heavy, full bodied wines, it may take sev- 
eral years. But when fully ripe, wine will develop and keep 
better in bottles than in wood, as there is always some evapor- 
ation through the pores of the latter, w^hich is excluded in the 
bottle. 



22 



336 GRAPE CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XII. 

CONCENTRATED MUST. 

This is one of the new industries, grown out of our neces- 
sities of finding a market for our products, and our somewhat 
isolated situation, which makes economy in freight rates par- 
ticularly desirable. If we can condense must to forty gallons, 
where we had 150 before, the reader will see at once what an 
immense gain this will be in freight. Moreover it steps in at 
the right time to relieve our over production of red wines, as 
mainly red wine grapes are used. If we can ship 400!!) of 
condensed must to England or any part of Europe, without 
danger of spoiling, instead of 150 gallons, or 15001!) of wine, 
and it can then be fermented into a good, sound claret, by 
the simple addition of the same amount of water extracted 
here, it will be apparent to every one "that a vast amount will 
be saved in freight alone ; and that we should welcome this 
-as one of the most timely innovations we have. 

There are at present two must condensers in operation in this 
State. One is the Yaryan process, of which Mr. Thomas D. 
Cone is agent, and who has made a trial of the process at Mr. 
Krugs cellar, near St. Helena. The plant is small, having a 
capacity of ten tons a day, and costing, set up and ready for 
operation, $2,500. The grapes are crushed and pressed, and 
the must is conducted to the feed tank of the apparatus by an 
automatic device. From here it is drawn through a lateral 
coil of pipes, which may be described as a pipe within a pipe, 
the grape must is in the inside pipe, and this is in a larger one 
surrounded by steam. The must is then condensed by the 
action of the steam, aided by a vacuum system, and drawn 



WINE-MAKING IN CAl.IFORNIA. 337 

into a separate chamber ; while the water taken from it is 
drawn into another direction in the form of vapor, and after- 
wards condensed and discharged through the waste pipe. The 
condensed must is drawn by a pump into barrells for shipment. 
The grape must in its condensed form is almost as thick as 
jelly, and contains seventy per cent of sugar. One hundred 
and fifty gallons of must are condensed to forty gallons, and 
of course the saving of freight alone is a large item. When it 
reaches its destination it is fermented over again by adding 
the same or a larger quantity of water than has been extracted, 
and thus made into wine. Mr. Cone has not been able to 
get a full water supply at Mr. Krugs, consequently has not 
been able to operate to its full capacity. He hopes to dem- 
onstrate by this season's operations the entire practicability of 
the condenser, which would be within the means of one or 
several of the larger producers, who cannot avail themselves 
of the large condenser on the Springmuehl plan. 

THE SPRINGMUEHLE CONDENSER. 

A party consisting of chief ex-officer Wheeler, Mr. Charles 
Krug, T. D. Cone and commissioner Isaac de Turk returned 
from a visit to Sonoma County, where they visited the large 
condenser lately established one mile north of Clairville by 
the stockholders of the American Concentrated Must Co., J. 
de Barth Shorb, President. They found it in successful op- 
eration. It has a capacity of one hundred to one hundred 
and fifty tons per day, but as their crushing and pressing faci- 
lities are somewhat incomplete, they are only working about 
fifty tons per day. Only claret grapes are used, for which 
about twelve dollars per ton is paid. The grapes are crushed, 
pressed, and the dry pomace afterwards mixed with the con- 
densed must, so that all the wine making ingredients are pre- 
served which the grape contains, and the product is shipped 
direct to London, England, where it will be fermented and 
turned into wine. They were much pleased by what they 



338 GRAPE CUJ/n KE AND 

saw, and think that the concentration of must in large quan- 
tities will materially assist in developing the wine markets. 
Dr. Springmuehl, who was there, stated that he expected next 
year to put up two of these plants himself, one at Fresno and 
one at Los Angeles. 

The Springmuehl system is only applied and applicable to 
very large quantities, as the inventor contends that only in an 
apparatus of very large dimensions a perfect product can be 
obtained. The Yaryan process is applicable to smaller quan- 
tities and the capabilities of individual producers. If both 
are successful, they will have a very beneficial effect on our 
industry, as they will open an immediate market for our sur- 
plus red wine grapes, and assist all those who have so largely 
planted them without having the facilities and the knowledge 
to make them into wine. 

I refer here to the essay of R. D'Heureuse on air treatment 
again. It is a remarkable coincidence that he should at that 
time already have foreshadowed the necessities, problems, and 
processes, which our decade seems just about to solve, and 
his words sound like prophecies. May they be fulfilled to a 
degree which surpasses his most vivid imaginings. 



\VINE-MAKIN(i IN CALIFORNIA. 339 



CHAPTER XIII. 

BR AND V AND VINEGAR. 

That a large quantity of brandy could and already is made 
here, from the pomace and lees as well as from wine itself, 
can be drawn from the single fact that 1,500,000 gallons of 
wine, of the vintage of 1885, were distilled into brandy. Not 
being very familiar with distilling myself, I shall not go into 
detailed descriptions of the apparatus and process, which had 
better be conducted by experts, should it become advisable 
to do so. The small producer had better not meddle with it, 
but leave it to his more wealthy neighbors, with whom he can 
easily make arrangements for distilling, if advisable. 

Brandy can be made from the pomace and lees, but it is 
generally somewhat harsh and rough, and the prices for 
brandy have been so low of late years that it has hardly paid 
to utilize these. But prices for brandy have advanced lately, 
and it may become profitable in the near future to use them. 
To use the pomace for this purpose, it is generally saturated 
with water when freshly pressed, refermented, and the liquid 
thus obtained, familiarly called piquette, distilled in the 
usual way. To make brandy from the lees, they are thrown 
together into casks when racking the wine in winter, diluted 
with water, and also distilled. Then also, immense quanti- 
ties of milksour and defective wines are distilled every year, 
and it is about the best that can be done with wines very rich 
in sacharine, but which did not "go through "in fermentation; 
much better than to try to doctor them up, and ruin the mar- 
ket by their sale as wine. It is self evident that these will 
make a large amount of brandy, as they contain a great deal 
of sugar, and the more sugar, the larger the yield of alcohol. 



340 (JRAPE CULTURE AND 

But the finest brandies are made from the grapes themselves 
distilled in their fresh or partly fermented state, and it has 
been the special study of some of our best brandy makers, to 
find varieties, which would produce the mildest and finest 
flavored brandy. Mr. Geo. W. West, of Stockton, has pro- 
duced a very fine brandy from a grape called Wests White 
Prolific, probably a Spanish variety, but which has not as yet 
been identified. As it is also an immense bearer, and makes 
a very delicate white wine, it is a desirable variety to plant,, 
for those who have in view the manufacture of brandy. Gen. 
Naglee, of San Jose, has made some very fine brandies, which 
connoissuers contend owed their high quality partly to the 
selection of varieties, partly to careful handling and ageing. 

It may yet be advisable in certain of the southern districts, 
where grapes ripen early, and develop a large amount of sugar 
to use the product mostly for liqueur wines and the mauufac- 
ture of fine brandy. The sale of 60,000 gallons in a single 
year by Mr. Rose, who has always made a very fine type of 
brandy, will show that there is a large market for a really- 
good article. In this direction, planters should pay more at- 
tention to the heavy bearing white varieties, such as Burger 
and Folle Blanche. The latter is used to a large extent in 
France for the production of fine Cognacs. 

But the smaller producers can use their pomace, or at least 
a part of it, for vinegar. This needs no costly buildings in 
this State, nor expensive fixings. A shed outside of the cellar, 
but on the sunny side, and a few tanks are all that is needed. 
As the pomace contains generally sugar enough, if fermented 
over, all it needs is to fill them with pomace and water, and 
leave them exposed to the air, when acetic fermentation will 
set in in a short time, and convert the water into fine vinegar. 
They should however, not put on more than about one-third 
of the quantity of water, than the must which was pressed 
from the grapes. When fermentation is over, the clear liquid 



WlNE-MAKlNG IN CALIFORNIA. 341 

may be drawn from below, or pressed. Thus, every grape 
grower can have his own pure wine vinegar, infinitely more 
wholesome than any he can buy, and as good wine vinegar is 
higher in price than wine, and finds a ready sale, he can dis- 
pose of the surplus at a paying figure. Imperfectly ripened 
grapes can also be utilized in this manner, should they not 
contain sugar enough for wine. In that case, no water need 
be added ; they are simply crushed, and exposed to the air. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

WINE STORAGE HOUSES. THE " PURE WINE " BILL. 

Any one at all conversant with the history and growth of 
the industry of this State, must acknowledge that one of our 
greatest drawbacks has been the immature state in which our 
wines were thrown on the market. There was not sufficient 
old, sound wine held over from the former vintages, to en- 
able the dealers to meet the demands of the trade, and the 
consequence was that wines were shipped East when hardly 
a year old. With the large quantity of albuminous sub- 
stances our heavy musts must contain, the imperfect manner 
in which many were made and fermented, it is not at all sur- 
prising, if, in spite of all fining and clarifying, these wines 
should come to their consumers cloudy and immature irt 
many instances, thus seriously injuring the trade and the rep- 
utation of California wines. That this is a great detriment 
to the prosperity of our calling, will at once become appar- 
ent. Yet the greater part of our producers are not able to 
hold their wines until the second year. They need their 



342 GRAPE fl I.TIRE AND 

cellars and cooperage again, and must dispose of their wines 
of the last vintage in some way, before the coming one is 
upon them. The dealers even, often have not capacity enough 
to hold large quantities, and generally buy only a few months 
in advance of their shipments. Thus California wines, in 
the majority of cases, come to the consumer in an imma- 
ture state, without having developed all their best qualities. 

The remedy for this is apparently simple and near at hand. 
We have large grain warehouses in all parts of the State, 
where the producer can store his grain, and obtain an ad- 
vance upon it. Yet good, soiuid ivifie, stored in the same 
manner, would offer a much safer investment to the capital- 
ist than wheat or other grain, which is subject to the depre- 
dations of rats and mice, weevils and other insects; while 
good, pure wine is not o\\\y safe from all these, but with 
proper care and handling, improves and gains in value in- 
stead of deteriorating, as grain does. 

It was with evident satisfaction that I visited the first of 
these establishments on the Pacific Coast, the immense cellars 
of the " California Winery and Security Company, " at the 
corner of Brannan and Eighth streets, and saw that this long 
discussed project bids fair to become a living reality. I was 
conducted over the immense buildings formerly owned by the 
California Sugar Refinery Company, by the obliging Secretary, 
Mr. D. M. Cashin, and all the details fully explained. The 
buildings have a capacity of from five to six million gallons in 
puncheons, and about 700,000 gallons have been stored so 
far ; of which 600,000 gallons are dry wines, 100,000 gallons 
Angelica and Port. Mr. Cashin tells me that about three 
millions have been engaged so far, and although this, like all 
new enterprises met with many difficulties ; and the cleaning 
of the building of all the old machinery, etc., occasioned a 
great deal of delay, they are now fairly under way. The 
building keeps a very even temperature, is four stories high, 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 343 

well ventilated, and a side track from the depot of the South- 
ern Pacific affords the greatest shipping facilities. In the 
equable climate of San Francisco, with a mean temperature of 
60 F in the building, the conditions forag:ing wine could 
scarcely be better. The Company have secured the services 
of Hon. H. Pellet of St. Helena, well known as an experi- 
enced wine maker, as Superintendent of Cellars. The con- 
ditions under which they receive wine for storage are as 
follows : 

1. The owner must send by express two sample bottles of 
wine to be stored, foi examination, with particulars as to 
quantity to be shipped, and capacity of casks required. One 
of the samples is submitted to Prof. Rising, State Analyst, 
for analysing, the other submitted to the cellar superin- 
tendent. If approved by both, the Company will supply 
cooperage, if required, containing 50, 60 and 160 gallons, as 
requested by shippers. . 

2. Advances will be made on pure, sound wine only, viz.: 
ten cents per gallon on wine. When cooperage is required, 
it will be supplied by the company, on which further advances 
to the amount of actual cost will be provided. The cost of 
puncheons will be about six cents per gallon. The rate of 
interest to be seven per cent, annually. 

3. Storage will be at the rate of twenty-five cents per ton 
per month, about equal to 160 to 170 gallons. Fire insur- 
ance at the rate of one per cent, per annum. 

4. Racking charges will be estimated according to the 
labor employed, and will be about fifteen cents per puncheon 
per annum. 

5. An escimate of all charges, interest on advances, storage 
insurance and racking charges, will amount to about three and 
a half cents per gallon per annum, and the value of the wine 
will doubtless increase to double its ruling rates, by its matur- 
ing under expert treatment and in an even temperature. 



344 '^;rape culture and 

The owner has the privilege of fixing the price at which 
he is willing to sell when the wine is marketable, which will 
be the lowest limit at which it will be sold by the company to 
buyers. The advances made to him, and the storage offered, 
will enable him to carry on his operations, empty his cellar, 
and receive the benefits accruing from the increased value of 
the wine. On the other hand, it will enable even the dealer 
to replenish his stock easier, to better advantage and of more 
uniform quality than by the present system of making selec- 
tions all over the State; and especially the Eastern and foreign 
trade will find it to their advantage to purchase, where they 
can find large and uniform quantities of well developed and 
matured wine. These advantages are so striking that they 
must be apparent to every one, and I hope that this is but 
the initiatory step to a general system of wine warehouses on 
our Coast. 

In connection with this, it may not be amiss to say 
a few words in regard to pure wines, and the so called 
"Pure wine bill." I believe that the adulteration of wine 
has never been practiced to a very great extent on this coast, 
but that the bad repute in which some of our wines were held, 
arose more from their imperfect and faulty handling, than 
from real adulterations. That some unscrupulous persons 
used cherry juice, and even more injurious substances for 
coloring and smoothing over defects in some of the wines of 
inferior grade, cannot be doubted; but hardly to the extent 
which some asserted. For this, the prevailing custom of 
selling whole cellars of wine, good, bad and indifferent, to the 
merchant, and compelling him, so to say, to take a lot of 
trash, if he also wanted the really good wines a cellar con- 
tained, is in a great measure to blame, as much of this trash 
was not saleable unless doctored to some extent, and the 
merchant of course tried to get his money back out of it. 
Be that as it may, it became necessary and seemed advisable 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 345 

to prevent this, and make a demonstration to show the world 
what we consider pure wine. With this intent, and for that 
purpose the present law was designed, and passed our Legis- 
lature, which I insert here, together with explanations by the 
Chief Viticultural Officer, and opinion of Attorney-General 
Johnson. Its constitutionality is now being tested, and I 
hope it will be of great benefit when effectually carried out. 
Should it not be found perfect or practical, it can be 
amended so as to become so, and will thus help to raise the 
standard of our wines. The dealers will quit buying poor 
wines, which will then go to the distillery, and our wine 
makers be compelled to take more pains than has been done 
so far, to produce a really saleable article. 

SUBSTITUTE FOR SENATE BILL, NO 2 1 9, ADOPTED IN SENATE 
FEBRUARY I7, 1 887 AN ACT TO PROHIBIT THE SOPHIS- 
TICATION AND ADULTERATION OF WINE, AND TO 
PREVENT FRAUD IN THE MANUFACTURE 
AND SALE THEREOF. 

The people of the State of California, represented in Senate 
and Assembly, do enact as follows: 

Section i. For the purposes of this Act, pure wine shall 
be defined as follows: The juice of grapes fermented, pre- 
served or fortified for use as a beverage, or as a medicine, 
by methods recognized as legitimate according to the provi- 
sions of this Act; unfermented grape juice, containing no ad- 
dition of distilled spirits, may be denominated according to 
popular custom and demand as wine only when described as 
" unfermented wine,'' and shall be deemed pure only when 
preserved for use as a beverage or medicine, in accordance 
with the provisions of this Act. Pure grape must shall be 
deemed to be the juice of grapes, only, in its natural condi- 
tion, whether expressed or mingled with the pure skins, seeds, 
or stems of grapes. Pure condensed grape must shall be 



o4<) grapp: cTLTunK and 

deemed to be pure grape must from which water has been ex- 
tracted by evaporation, for purposes of preservation or increase 
of saccharine strength. Dry wine is that produced by com- 
plete fermentation of saccharine contained in must. Sweet 
wine is that which contains more or less saccharine apprecia- 
ble to the taste. Fortified wine is that wine to which dis- 
tilled spirits have been added to increase alcoholic strength, 
for purposes of preservation only, and shall be held to be 
pure, when the spirits so used are the product of the grape 
only. Pure champagne or sparkling wine is that which con- 
tains carbonic acid gas or effervescence produced only by nat- 
ural fermentation of saccharine matter of musts, or partially 
fermented wine in bottle. 

Sec. 2. In the fermentation, preservation, and fortifica- 
tion of i^ure wine, it shall be specifically understood that no 
materials shall be used intended for substitutes for grapes, or 
any part of grapes; no coloring matters shall be added which 
are not the pure products of grapes during fermentation, or 
by extraction from grapes with the aid of pure grape spirits; 
no foreign fruit juices, and no spirits imported from foreign 
countries, whether pure or compounded with fruit juices, or 
other material not the pure product of grapes, shall be used for 
any purpose; no aniline dyes, salicylic acid, glycerine, alum, or 
other chemical antiseptics or ingredients recognized as dele- 
terious to the health of consumers, or as injurious to the repu- 
tation of wine as pure, shall be permitted; and no distilled 
spirits shall be added except for the sole purpose of preserva- 
tion and without the intention of enabling trade to lengthen 
the volume of fortified dry wine by the addition of water or 
other wine, weaker in alcoholic strength. 

Sec. 3. In the fermentation and preservation of pure 
wine, and during the operations of fining or clarifying, re- 
moving defects, improving qualities, blending and maturing, 
no methods shall be employed which essentially conflict with 



WINK-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 847 

the provisions of the preceding sections of this Act, and no 
materials shall be used for the promotion of fermentation, or 
the assistance of any of the operations of wine treatment 
which are injurious to the consumer or the reputation of wine 
as pure ; provided, that it shall be expressly understood that 
the practices of using pure tannin in small quantities, leaven 
to excite fermentation only, and not to increase the material 
for. the production of alcohol ; water before or during, but not 
after fermentation, for the purpose of decreasing the saccharine 
strength of musts to enable perfect fermentation ; and the 
natural products of grapes in the pure forms as they exist in 
pure grape musts, skins, and seeds; sulphur fumes, to disin- 
fect cooperage and prevent disease in wine' ; and pure gela- 
tinous and albuminous substances, for the sole purpose of 
assisting fining or clarification, shall be specifically permitted 
in the operations hereinbefore mentioned, in accordance with 
recognized legitimate custom. 

Sec. 4. It shall be unlawful to sell, or expose, or offer to 
sell under the name of wine, or grape musts, or condensed 
musts, or under any names designating pure wines, or pure 
musts as hereinbefore classified and defined, or branded, 
labeled, or designated in any way as wine or musts, or by any 
name popularly and commercially used as a designation of 
wine produced from grapes, such as Claret, Burgundy, Hock, 
Sauterne, Port, Sherry, Madeira and Angelica, any substance 
or compound, except pure wine, or pure grape must, or pure 
grape condensed must, as defined by this Act, and produced 
in accordance with and subject to restrictions herein set forth; 
provided ; that this Act shall not apply to liquors imported 
from any foreign country, which are taxed upon entry by cus- 
tom laws in accordance with a specific duty and contained in 
original packages or vessels and prominently branded, labeled, 
or marked so as to be known to all persons as foreign pro- 
ducts, excepting, however, when such liquors shall contain 



348 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

adulterations of artificial coloring matters, antiseptic chem- 
icals, or other ingredients known to be deleterious to the 
health of consumers ; and provided furtJier, that this Act shall 
not apply to currant wine, gooseberry wine, or wines made 
from other fruits than the grape, which are labeled or branded 
and designated and sold, or offered or exposed for sale under 
names including the word wine, but also expressing distinctly 
the fruit from which they are made, as gooseberry wine, 
elderberry wine, or the like. • Any violation of any of the 
provisions of any of the preceding sections shall be a misde- 
meanor. 

Sfx. 5. Exceptions from the provisions of this Act shall 
be made in the case of pure champagne, or sparkling wine, so 
far as to permit the use of chrystalized sugar in sweetening the 
same according to usual custom, but in no other respect. 

Sec. 6. In all sales and contracts for sale, production, or 
delivery of products defined in this Act, such products, in the 
absence of a written agreement to the contrary, shall be pre- 
sumed to be pure as herein defined, and such sale or con- 
tract shall, in the absence of such an agreement, be void, if it 
be established that the products so sold or contracted for were 
not pure as herein defined. And in such case the conceal- 
ment of the true character of such products shall constitute 
actual fraud for which damages may be recovered, and in a 
judgment for damages, reasonable attorney fees to be fixed by 
the Court, shall be taxed as costs. 

Sec. 7. The Controller of the State shall cause to have 
engraved plates, from which shall be printed labels which 
shall set forth that the wine covered by such labels is pure 
California wine in accordance with this Act, and leaving 
blanks for the name of the particular kind of wine, and the 
name or names of the seller of the wine and place of business. 
These labels shall be of two forms or shapes, one a narrow^ 
strip to cap over the corks of bottles, the other, round or 



^\•^XE-MAKING IX CALIFORNIA. 349 

square, and sufficiently large, say three inches square, to 
cover the bungs of packages in which wine is sold. Such 
labels shall be furnished upon proper application to actual resi- 
dents, and to be used in this State only, and only to those who 
are known to be growers, manufacturers, traders, or handlers, 
and bottlers of California wine, and such parties will be required 
to file a sworn statement with said Controller, setting forth 
that his or their written application for such labels is and will 
be for his or their sole use and benefit, and that he or they 
will not give, sell, or loan such label to any other person or 
persons whomsoever. Such labels shall be paid for at the 
same rate and prices as shall be found to be the actual cost 
price to the State, and shall be supplied from time to time as 
needed upon the written application of such parties as are be- 
fore mentioned. Such label when affixed to bottle or wine 
package shall be so affixed, that by drawing the cork from 
bottle or opening the bung of package, such label shall be 
destroyed by such opening ; and before affixing such labels 
all blanks shall be filled out by stating the variety or kind of 
wine that is contained in such bottle or package, and also by 
the name or names and post office address of such grower, 
manufacturer, trader, handler, or bottler of such wine. 

Sec. 8. It is desired and required that all and evejy 
grower, manufacturer, trader, handler, or bottler of California 
wine, when selling or putting up for sale any California wine, 
or when shipping California wine to parties to whom sold, shall 
plainly stencil, brand, or have printed where it will be easily 
seen, first, " Pure California Wine," and secondly, his name, 
or the firm's name, as the case may be, both on label of bottle 
or package in which wine is sold and sent, or he may, in lieu 
thereof, if he so prefers and elects, affix the label which has 
been provided for in Section 7. It shall be unlawful to affix 
any such stamp or label as above provided to any vessel con- 
taining any substance other than pure wine, as herein defined, 



350 grapp: culturk and 

or to prepare or use on any vessel containing any liquid, any 
imitation or counterfeit of such stamp, or any paper in the 
similitude or resemblance thereof, or any paper of such form 
and appearance as to be calculated to mislead or deceive any 
unwary person, or cause him to suppose the contents of such 
vessel to be pure wine. It shall be unlawful for any person 
or persons, other than the ones for whom such stamps were 
procured, to in any way use such s^^amps, or to have posses- 
sion of the same. A violation of any of the provisions of this 
section shall be a misdemeanor, and punishable by fine of not 
less than fifty dollars and not more than five hundred dollars, 
or by imprisonment in the county jail for a term of not ex- 
ceeding ninety days, or by both such fine and impiisonment. 
All moneys collected by virtue of prosecutions had against 
persons violating any provisions of this or any preceeding sec- 
tions shall go one-half to the informer and one-half to the. 
District Attorney prosecuting the same. 

Sec. 9. It shall be the duty of the Controller to keep an 
account, in a book to be kept for that purpose, of all stamps, 
the number, design, time when, and to whom furnished. The 
parties procuring the same are hereby required to return to 
the Controller semi-annual statements under oath, setting 
forth the number used, and how many remains on hand. 
Any violation of this section, by the person receiving such 
stamps, is a misdemeanor. 

Sec 10. It shall be the duty of any and all persons re- 
ceiving such stamps to use the same only in their business, 
in no manner or in nowise to allow the same to be disposed 
of except in the manner authorized by this Act ; to not allow 
the same to be used by any other person or persons. It 
shall be their duty to become satisfied that the wine contained 
in the barrels or bottles is all that said label imports as de- 
fined by this Act. That they will use the said stamps only 
in this State and shall not permit the same to part from their 



WINE-MAKIXG IX CALIFOKXIA. 351 

possession, except with the barrels, packages or bottles upon 
which they are placed as provided by this Act. A violation 
of any of the provisions of this section is hereby made a felony. 

Sec. 12. This Act shall take effect and be in force 
ninety days after its passage. 

This law goes into effect and becomes operative on June 
5th, 1887. 

In section ten of the above law will be found the following: 

" It shall be their (those employing the stamp) duty to be- 
come satisfied that the wine contained in the barrels or bot- 
tles is all that said label imports." 

As there are many dealers who will employ the stamp on 
wines, bottled or packed by them in small packages ; which 
wine they receive from others in larger packages, coming to 
them covered by the State stamp of purity, the question 
arises as to the liability of such bottler and what would con- 
stitute in the eye of the law, the " duty" of the said bottler 
in determining that the wine employed was true to label. 

The answer to this question has been kindly furnished to 
me as follows, by Attorney-General Johnson : 

Sacramento, May 19th, 1887. 
J. H. Wheeler, Esq., 

204 Montgomery St., San Francisco. 

Dear Sir: — Answering your inquiries as to the Act to pro- 
hibit the sophistication and adulteration of wine, &:c., ap- 
proved March 7th, 1887. 

You make a hypothetical case for my opinion: " A buys 
an adulterated wine from B, with a pure wine stamp over the 
bung. A bottles the wine and puts the pure wine stamp on 
the bottle, believing the wine to be pure. Subsequently the 
wine is found to be not pure. Is A then liable } " 

It won't do for A to trust implicitly B or his stamps. The 
Act requires some diligence on A's part. It says that it shall 
23 



352 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

be his duty to become satisfied that the wine contained 
in the barrels or bottles, is all that said label imports as de- 
fined by this Act. 

A therefore must not be guilty of criminal negligence. 
That would be as bad as if A's intent w^as to palm off ad- 
ulterated or impure wine. 

But if A makes a reasonable effort in good faith to satisfy 
himself that the wine is all that the label imports and is sat- 
isfied after using due diligence, he would not be guilty of a 
misdemeanor, if he was mistaken or imposed upon. It is 
the good faith of A and the use of due diligence and scrutiny 
in his investigation, which the law requires. I do not think 
an analytic test is necessarily required to be applied by A. 
That might not at all times be practicable. But he must 
recollect that there is a duty cast upon him to satisfy himself 
by available and reasonably reliable means that the wine is 
what the label imports, and he must be satisfied. 

An analysis, however, would be the most satisfactory way 

to test the wine. 

Very Truly Yours, 

G. A. Johnson, Attorney General. 

Other than this the law seems to be sufficiently clear to 
need no further explanation. Particular attention is called 
to Section 6, which renders the sale of anything purporting 
to be wine — in the absence of a written agreement to the 
contrary — void and the vender liable for damages if it be 
not pure as specified in the law. According to the framers 
of this law, this, whether it bears the pure wine stamp or not, 
is the effective clause, and coupling with it the liberal recom- 
pense to the informer and the prosecuting attorney, we have 
incentive sufficient to greatly facilitate its enforcement. 

WINE ANALYSIS. 

Whenever it becomes necessary or desirable that a wine be 
analyzed for the benefit of a dealer, vine grower, or any per- 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 353 

son whatsoever, pursuant to the enforcement of the above 
law, a sample of the same may be sent to the Secretary 
of the Viticultural Commission, by whom an analysis will be 
procured from the State Analyst and a ready report made as 
to its purity. The machinery for this latter work was ob- 
tained in an Act passed by the State Legislature entitled: 

An Act to Provide for Analyzing Minerals, Mineral Jla- 
ters and other Liquids, and the Medicitial Plants of the State 
of California, and Foods and Drugs, to Prevent Adulteration 
of the same. Approved March 9th, 1885. 

This law provides that the Governor of the State shall 
appoint one of the Professors of the University of California, 
as State Analyst, whose duty it shall be to analyze all arti- 
cles of food, drugs, medicines, medicinal plants, ^o,., manu- 
factured, sold, or used in this State, when the same shall be 
properly submitted to him. The law then prescribes the 
methods by which the samples of various articles shall be 
obtained and submitted for analysis, and specifies that the 
Board of State Viticultural Commissioners shall have the 
privilege of submitting to the State Analyst samples of wines, 
grape spirits or liquids or compounds in imitation thereof 
for analysis, as follows: 

Any person desiring an analysis of such products may sub- 
mit the same to the Secretary of the State Viticultural Com- 
missioners, who will transmit them to the State Analyst in 
the manner prescribed. The analysis shall be made and the 
certificate of the same shall be forwarded to the Secretary of 
the Viticultural Commission. This certificate, as the law 
reads, shall be held in all courts of this State, as prima facie 
evidence of the properties of the articles analyzed by him. 

Thus it may be seen that there lies within the reach of every 
wine maker or dealer, an easy means of obtaining without ex- 
pense, uncontrovertible evidence wherever fraud is supposed. 

Unfortunately, this law appropriated no money for the car- 



3o4 GRAPE CTLTUKE AND 

rying on of the work required. Realizing the importance of 
such a bureau and its maintenance, however, the Vilicultu- 
ral Commission has shared its endowment with the State 
Analyst and will continue to do so in order to lend all of the 
aid they can to the support of the law. Pursuant to the re- 
quirements of the Act, W. B. Rising, Professor of Chemistry 
at the State University, was duly appointed State Analyst. 
An assistant has been employed, and he is now ready for and 
engaged in the examination of wines, the purity of which 
can be quickly determined and the report made available in 
a few days after delivery of the samples to our Secretary. 

Concerning the expense of maintaining the State Analyst's ' 
Bureau, it is hoped that the Board of Regents of the University, 
in their manifest desire to aid the cause of viticulture, and in 
view of the liberal endowment made them in the last Legis- 
lature, will come to the assistance of the Commission in the 
support of the analytic work. 

THE STAMPS. 

Section seven provides that on application the necessary 
stamps shall be furnished by the controller. 

Here again, the Legislature made no appropriation with 
which to purchase the plates necessary for printing the stamps 
and the liberality of the Viticultural Commission is drawn 
upon, they having consented to supply the first cost. 

One hundred thousand stamps have already been printed 
by the State Controller, and will be ready for distribution 
when needed. Their cost will be $1.50 per M. with ex- 
pense of delivery added. The stamp for bottles may be 
easily affixed thereto, that placed over the bung of a barrel 
will need the protection of a piece of tin such as is ordin- 
arily affixed to the bung of a barrel previous to shipping. 

The following committee of vine growers to see to the en- 
forcement of the law has been appointed by H. W. Mclntyre, 
President of the State Vine Growers' and Wine Makers* 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 355 

Association: Hon. M. M. Estee, Napa; J. B. J. Portal, 
San Jose; Capt. Chamon de St. Hubert, Fresno; J. H. 
Drummond, Glen Ellen; H. A. Pellet, St. Helena; Jacob 
Schramm, Calistoga; H. A. Meriam, Los Gatos; B. H. 
Upham, San Francisco; A. Erz, Anaheim; Julius P. Smith, 
Livermore. To these others will be added soon. This com- 
mittee willproceed to collect miscellaneous samples of wine 
found throughout the city and state, which, if proving spurious, 
will be turned over to the district attorney and the case sub- 
mitted to the courts. 

The pure wine Act, at the time of its passage by the last 
Legislature was the subject of considerable criticism and dis- 
pute. 

It was discussed at great length before the public, but, 
having ended in adoption and approval, it is to be hoped that 
the little inconvenience it may make a few will be amply com- 
pensated for by its good effect on the general industry. If it 
opens the way to any fraud we may be sure this clause will 
be used by the enemy; to counteract the effect of which 
■every good feature of the law must be brought into requisition. 

Many demanded the use of certain materials in preparing 
wine, which materials to them seemed harmless, but which 
had to be denied in order to exclude other more damaging 
adulterants. For example, we may well afford for the market 
within our own State to abandon the use of ordinary grain 
spirits in fortifying wines if by the law we are able to stop the 
extensive and unhealthful practice of stretching produced by 
the same means. 

Nor must we forget the effect of this Act in enlarging the 
•demand for grape spirits, and thereby causing the distilling of 
poor wines, which would otherwise be fortified by neutral 
spirits, and usurp the place of better wines. By the Act a 
native spirit is substituted for an imported one. 

The healthful effect of our wines and a consequent increased 



356 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

local consumption, will be greatly promoted by substitution of 
grape spirits for cheaper poisonous spirits. 

Several have already indicated their intention of using the 
State stamp on small packages. On bottles, particularly,- 
will the practice be adopted, and here it will be of use. 
When the public demand the pure wine stamp on the bottles, 
as they will do when knowing its value and finding some mer- 
chants who employ it; the trade will be forced to supply them 
pure wine, and that under a California label. A large por- 
tion of the native wine sold in bottles, goes today to the pub- 
lic with a ficticious label of foreign import. The presence of 
the stamp will bring to public recognition the name and trade 
mark of California producers, where heretofore the bottle has 
been branded " Chateaux La Rose," " Chateau Margaux "or 
" St. Julien." 

Whether the use of the stamp on large packages going out 
of the State will be harmful or otherwise, the use of the same 
on bottled wines must certainly result in good. 

It has been suggested that the Controller's list of those 
dealers making application for the stamp will prove a valuable 
directory for the use of purchasers. It is to be hoped it may. 

13ealers have now had ample time for working off their sus- 
picious products, and every opportunity has been given those, 
who — perhaps with honest motives at first — have been forced 
into the use of cheapening processes by harmful competition, 
to start anew on a fair, square basis with an easy redress from 
others competing by dishonest means. 

Whatever effect this law may have, it will aid in forming 
a standard of excellence founded on quality and not alone on 
price. The latter has proved the ruinous measure by which 
our wines have been gauged and marketed, a measure by 
which they have been caused to degenerate rather than ad- 
vance. Good wine continues to improve and will pay to keep. 
Poor wine will rapidly deteriorate, and if not allowed to be 



WlNE-MAKlNG IN CALIFORNIA. 357 

drugged, must go either to the distillery or be made into 
vinegar. 

If this law becomes effective, which depends mainly on the 
patronage of the wine-drinking public, it will double the 
California market tor good wine. Its success will send the 
poor wine to the distillery, the sale of which has dragged 
down the price of the better product to ruinous figures; 
figures which preclude the possibility of marketing any choicer 
grades for the general public. 

J. H. Wheeler. 

Chief Viticulttiral Officer. 



CHAPTER XV. 

WINE S'lATLSriCS. 



These are very difficult to obtain in this busy State, where 
everybody seems to have his hands full, and seems to be unwill- 
ing or unable to attend to anything else. But a few items which 
will give a general idea of the magnitude of the industry may 
be of interest to my readers, as they will show the rapid in- 
crease from small beginnings. 

The Secretary of the State Board of equalization, Hon. E. 
W. Maslin, reports the entire number of acres in vines in' the 
State, by counties from the report of the County Assessors to 
be 121,440 acres, distributed as follows : 

Alameda, 3,451 acres; Amador, 846 acres; Butte, 247 
acres; Calaveras, 1,440 acres; Colusa, 506 acres; Contra 
Costa, 3,000 acres ; Del Norte, 4 acres; El Dorado, 1,570 
acres; Fresno, 10,185 acres ; Inyo, 95 acres ; Kern, 45 acres; 



358 GRAPE d'LTUBE AND 

Lake, 985 acres; Los Angeles, 17,000 acres; Marin, 493 acres; 
Mariposa, 500 acres; Mendocino, 108 acres; Monterey, 500 
acres; Napa, 14,431 acres; Nevada, 235 acres; Placer, 2,221 
acres ;»Sacramento, 6,465 acres ; San Benito, no acres ; San 
Bernardino, 9,165 acres; San Joaquin, 1,739 acres; San 
Luis Obispo, 275 acres; San Mateo, 625 acres; Santa Bar- 
bara, 527 acres ; Santa Clara, 9,423 acres ; Shasta, 147 acres ; 
Siskiyou, 4 acres; Sonoma, 21,638 acres; Stanislaus, 498 
acres; Sutter, 430 acres; Tehama, 4,972 acres; Trinity, 20 
acres; Tulare, 1,229 acres ; Tuolumne, 890 acres ; Ventura, 
3oo acres; Yolo, 3,191 acres; Yuba, 165 acres. 

The Secretary of the State Viticultural Commission, Mr. 
Clarence J. Wetmore, however, thinks this estimate altogether 
too low, and estimates the number of acres, from information 
received of the vineyard owners direct, at about 150,000. 
The assesors have neglected in many cases to give the number 
of acres for table, and market, and for wine. As far as re- 
ported from about forty counties, there are 13,760 acres of 
table grapes, and 59,036 acres of wine grapes. 

Li this connection, the wine product of the State for the 
past ten years will be of interest. It is as follows: 

In 1876, 3,750,000 gallons; 1877, 4,000,000 gallons; 
1878, 5,000,000 gallons; 1879, 5,000,000 gallons; 1880, 
8,500,000 gallons ; 1881, 7,000,000 gallons; 1882, 10,000,- 
000 gallons; 1883, 8,500,000 gallons; 1884, 15,000,000 
gallons; 1885, 9,000,000 gallons; 1886, 18,000,000 gallons. 

The crop of 1887 is estimated at about 16,000,000 gallons; 
although there is a largely increased acreage, the crop was cut 
short in many sections by frost and coulure, and still more so 
by the prevailing hot weather and drying winds during the 
vintage, which caused the grapes to dry up and yield much 
less juice to the ton than in preceding vintages; from one hun- 
dred and ten to one hundred and twenty gallons to the ton 
being the average, against one hundred and forty to one hun- 



AVIXE-MAKING IX (ALIFORXTA. 859 

dred and fifty gallons last year. Of this crop all will not be 
merchantable wine, on account of defective fermentation, and 
about 12,000,000 gallons may be taken as a fair estimate of 
sound wines ; the balance will have to be made into port and 
sweet wines, or into brandy. Of course, it is too early yet to 
make a correct estimate, but this may be taken as the ap- 
proximate result. 

Besides, the decrease will be mostly in the counties which 
produce the finest light table wines, Sonoma, Napa and 
Solano. Napa, which produced something like 4,000.000 
gallons last year, will not produce much more than 2,000,000 
this year, so that those who produce choice wines, will find 
a readv sale for it, and, from present appearances, at re- 
munerative prices. The reports during the last three years, 
in the six months ending June 30th, will also throw some 
light upon the increasing consumption of California wines. 
They are by sea and rail, as follows : 1885, 2,181,996 gal- 
lons ; 1886, 3,227,354 gallons ; 1887, 3,624,390 gallons, 
showing an increase of about 1,500,000 gallons since 1885. 
As it stands now, according to the nearest estimates that can 
be made at random, the home consumption is about 5,000,- 
000 gallons; export trade, 4,500,000 gallons; for brandy, 
1,500,000 gallons; total, 11,000,000 gallons, which would 
not leave much in first hands, perhaps not more than is not 
fit at present to ship, but should have more age to make it 
really saleable. 



360 GRAPE CUl-TURE AND 



CHAPTER XVI. 

WINE AS AN ARTICLE OF COMMERCE. 

I was very reluctant to say anything about this subject, and 
hoped to obtain an article from a gentleman in the trade, who 
is more versed than I can be. As he is prevented however, 
from contributing, I am compelled to do the best I can from 
what information I have been able to gather from the trade. 
I shall quote from such sources available to me, and take 
pleasure in presenting an extract from a circular of Messrs. 
J. Gundlach &: Co., one of the oldest and fairest firms in the 
trade, regarding last season's vintage. They say, Nov. 1886, 
" one of the most successful vintages recorded in the annals 
of the California wine industry has just been terminated and 
we take great pleasure in submitting to our friends our views 
of the result, and a condensed report of the present and pros- 
pective condition of our wine market. 

"The weather, during the entire season, proved as favorable 
as could be wished for. No early or late frosts ; no damaging 
winds, coulure, grasshoi)pers or other unforeseen mishaps re- 
garded the development of the grapes, and our vintners en- 
joyed al) the advantages of picking, crushing and fermenting 
under the most beneficial atmospheric conditions. Our 
"musts" indicated from 21, to 26 per cent of sugar, with 
well-proportioned amounts of acid, and give promise, there- 
fore, of speedy development into elegant wines. 

"The Burgundies, Zinfandels and other Clarets, show fine 
color, (being in some localities probably not as intensely dark 
as last year), but they are faultless in fermentation and in 
every other respect. This observation can be made in all 
wine districts from North to South. California's cellars never 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 361 

represented a finer selection and better fermented assortment 
of young wines, than at the close of the present season, and 
the future will undoubtedly mention this bountiful vintage as 
the famous year of 1886. 

"In purchasing grapes, wine-makers started reluctantly at fair 
prices, but competition soon compelled prices as high as last 
year. Choice varieties were readily contracted, and generally 
sold at very satisfactory figures. Ordinary grades were left 
to take care of themselves and our Brandy Distillers had a 
splendid opportunity to replenish their deficient stock, and 
considerable brandy will enter our Bonded Warehouse during 
the next few months. 

"We feel at liberty to make the following estimate of this 
year's vintage : 

Napa County 4,800,000 galkns. 

Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties 4,200,000 

Sonoma County 3,100,000 

Fresno and San Joaquin Counties 2,000,000 

Santa Clara and Santa Cruz Counties 1,700,000 

Contra Costa and Alameda Counties 1 ,200,000 

Sacramento, Tehama and Solano Counties ...... 2,000,000 

Placer, Yuba, Yolo and El Dorado Counties.. . . 500,000 



Total 19,500,000 gallons. 

"A portion (about one-seventh) of these 20 million gallons 
(in round numbers) has already been or is rapidly being trans- 
formed into brandy. The production of sweet wines has 
been considerably restricted ; prevailing prices appear to offer 
very little inducement for this branch of our industry. Ports, 
sherries, etc., will therefore not be very plentiful. The pro- 
portion of red and white wines will probably be as two to one. 

"The abundant crop of light wines of 1884 has gradually 
found its way into the hands of the trade, and they seem to 
be well appreciated. At the present time, absolutely no 
stocks of any consequence of '84's and '"85's remain in grow- 



362 (iRAPE CUI/rURE AND 

ers' cellars. San Francisco merchants and shippers control 
the bulk of old stocks, and prices rule steady. The wines of 
1885, rich and full in body and color, are developing slowly, 
and will be late, therefore, in entering the general market for 
consumption. 

"The year's business has been very satisfactory, showing an 
increase of about two million gallons over last year's export 
trade, and indicating even better progress in our local Cali- 
fornia trade and coast shipments. 

"Great fear and apprehension have heretofore been enter- 
tained of over-production. The steady increase of our vine- 
yards, productiveness of soil and climate threatened to over- 
balance the healthy equilibrium of supply and demand. But, 
in spite of prohibition and fanatical temperance agitation in 
some of our States and the reluctancy of Congress to protect 
pure wine against imitations and adulterations, we are making 
progress in every direction ■ — we carry no surplus of accumu- 
lated stocks — our vineyardists are as active and stirring as ever, 
and we all are confident of continued success. Lower prices, 
cheaper rates of freight, a very noticeable change for the bet- 
ter in the average quality of our wines, and above all, their 
indisputable purity ; all these facts will act as powerful agents 
towards a rapid extension of our market and the general 
distribution and introduction of California wines." 

This, together with the statistics given before, will serve to 
show the importance of wine as an article of commerce. But 
in addition, it is widening its sphere of consumption every 
year, new markets are constantly opened, and the old ones 
increase, just as a stone, droppe<i into the water, increases the 
circle of its commotion, so does <_^^^<^ wine extend its market 
everywhere, where once introduced. 

Our shipment lists now show as markets for our wine, all 
Eastern cities, Central America, Mexico, Panama, South 
America, Germany, Japan, Honolulu, Tahiti, Belgium and 



AVINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 363 

England. Many of these are but small at present, but they 
help to swell the aggregate, and if the wine proves satisfac- 
tory they will rapidly increase; California itself consumes about 
6,000,000 gallons annually, and if we take into account its 
rapidly growing population, it is safe to predict that the home 
consumption will reach 10,000,000 annually, within five years 
from now. The increased .area in vines has been nearly al- 
together of the choicer kinds ; consequently, with increased 
knowledge in making and handling it, we can expect a much 
better average product than we have had so far. Even the 
low prices ruling this year may prove a benefit in the end, as 
it has forced many to keep and store their wine, thus giving 
the superior product of 1886 time to ripen and improve by 
age. Ours is not a product that will deteriorate and loose, 
like wheat and other grain, hops, or even fruit. It is well 
known and proven that long sea voyages improve wine and 
develop it, consequently there is less risk than with almost 
every other article of trade. 

France, whose vineyards were her main stay, now does not 
produce enough for home consumption, and must rely on Italy, 
Hungary and Spain, for the supplies to keep up her export 
trade, and — on the wine doctors art. We are now steadily 
encroaching on her trade on this continent, and there is no 
reason why we should not be able to supply all the foreign 
importations. Thousands of gallons of California wine are 
now sold annually under foreign labels. May we not confi- 
dently hope that this will cease sometime, and that California's 
wines will be sought, just because they are Californian ! There 
seems good reason for the fulfilment of this. 



364 GRAPPA CULTURE AND 



CHAPTER XVII. 

WINE AS A TEMPERANCE AGENT. 

This may seem a strange heading to our total abstinence 
people, who see in wine only an enemy in disguise, not quite 
so intoxicating but therefor all the more dangerous, than 
whiskey or brandy. Yet the greater part of their aversions 
would vanish, if they would for a moment enquire into the 
condition, morally and physically, of the nations in Europe 
who use wine as their daily drink, and those who use distilled 
liquors largely. They would find sobriety, health, good tem- 
per and merriment prevailing in those countries where wine is 
the daily drink ; and desolation, physical ruin and wretched- 
ness among the lower classes, where distilled liquor is about 
the only consolation of the poor ; a wretched one indeed, I 
grant them, but still too often resorted to, to deaden the feel- 
ing of utter despair and desolation of the outcasts of Society. 

Then their objections arise in some degree from misconcep- 
tion. They have learned to know as " wine " only those de- 
leterious compounds, which are brought on the market as 
Sweet Catawba, Angelica, Port and Sherry, often only mix- 
tures of logwood, syrup, and alcohol, and which are about as 
strong and far more injurious than whiskey or brandy; sweet- 
ened so as to disguise the bad liquor they contain, and which 
bring an overdose of dullness, headache, and intoxication to 
all the unfortunates who may partake of them. Let me be 
understood, once for all, that I do not call such stuff iviiie, 
and that it is as different in its effects from pure light wine, 
with only ten per cent, of alcohol, its pleasant acidity, fine 
flavor, and enlivening and invigorating effect on body and 
mind, than quinine is from a fine Mocha or Imperial. I am 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. oQo 

referring, when I speak of 7i>me, to the "cup that cheers, but 
not inebriates," provided always that it is used in moderation, 
as sensible men and women should use it. I speak of the 
wine our Savior Himself consecrated and ordained to be used 
at His holy supper; and we may point to Him with just pride 
as the most illustrious wine maker, to promote innocent hilar- 
ty at the wedding of Cana. Our temperance friends certainly 
forget this, when they claim to be His followers, yet condemn 
in the same breath the cup which He has anointed to be used 
to perpetuate His memory on earth. 

But it is not to Him alone that we can refer. St. Paul 
says to Thimothy, "Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, 
and for thine oft infirmity." And I could refer them to many 
more passages in holy writ to show how fallacious their theory 
that the scriptures forbid its use. Luther, the very type of 
vigorous and independent manhood, f/ie great reformer of the 
church, says, "Who loves not wine, women and song, remains 
a fool his whole life long." This offers some excuse for those 
who forget all justice and right when they try to deprive <?// 
of its 7/se because a few abuse it. Surely, Luther did not go 
down to a drunkard's grave, nor was he ever accused of drunk- 
eness; and I know of not one of the eminent reformers who 
interdicted the use of wine, as these would-be "latter day 
Saints" do. 

"To the pure all things are pure," and he who uses wine in 
moderation, good, pure wine, such as I try to show my 
readers how to make and handle, will certainly have too great 
a respect for one of the choicest gifts of Heaven to mankind 
to abuse it. We have brought up a family of six, four girls 
and two boys, all grown now; they have had free access to 
wine from babies up, and drink it daily ; but none of them 
have ever shown a disposition to abuse it, although the oldest- 
son has had charge of a cellar for over four years, and is now 
cellar master over the white wine department of Gov. Stan- 



366 grapp: culture and 

ford's vineyard at Vina. But 1 know many hopeful young 
men, whose parents anxiously guarded them against taking a 
glass of wine, and forbid its use, who now, w^hen they are no 
longer controlled by them, are becoming drunkards and sots 
on bad whiskey and other abominations. It is the old, old 
story of the "forbidden fruit being the sweetest." 

None of our so called temperance, (rather total abstinence, 
however, which is far from temperance) can be more averse 
to drunkenness than I am. I hate drunkenness, and I de- 
spise and pity its victims more than words can tell. But be- 
cause I would like to see this great nation a temperate one al- 
so, I firmly believe that the total abstinence fanatics are 
wrong, and that only by the moderate use of pure light wine 
we can ever hope to make it so. Human nature is so con- 
stituted that it craves a stimulant of some kind to keep up its 
faculties in the wear and tear of daily business life. This na- 
tion has more dyspeptics among its business men than any 
other, England, perhaps, excepted. And why.? Because 
our business men use wo moderation; they work until nature 
is exhausted, then rush off to lunch or supper, swallow a glass 
of whiskey or brandy hastily at the counter of some bar, and 
then rush back to their business. Is it not a natural conse- 
(juence of such a life that they feel the need of stimulants, 
use them at first, find temporary relief and excitement from 
[hem, and end by repeating their doses too often, by ruining 
their stomachs, and go to the grave before their time, or 
rather at a time, when the business men of other nations be- 
gin to enjoy life. 

If, instead of this, we had restaurants which were wine 
houses at the same time, where our business men could ob- 
tain their meals, take their friends with them, have a choice 
bottle of wine with their lunch, and take it with and at their 
meals, when it would help by its pleasant acid and other en- 
livening qualities to digest it, take at least half an hour for 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 367 

social chat, and throw away business cares, it would be a rest 
and recreation to them, instead of a mere process to keep 
body and soul together, as it is now. I am glad to see that 
some of our restaurants and hotels have already commenced 
this; and that a fair bottle or half bottle of wine can be had 
with their meals. But we also want houses which keep the best 
of California's products, at a good price if you please; so that 
every true Californian can invite a friend from abroad, whom 
he may have with him, to a glass of wine which is a true 
representative of our industry, and to which he can point with 
pride as the product of our State; a State of which we have 
such just reason to be proud, as the noblest and the brightest, 
the State where milk and honey flow, and where every one 
can sit " under his own vine and fig tree." 

There are two crying evils in this State yet, however, 
which ought to be abolished as soon as possible; and such 
wine houses as before mentioned would do a great deal, and 
prove the initiatory steps to their eradication. One is the 
senseless and altogether unjustifiable practice in our saloon, to 
keep about the poorest and lowest priced wine they can ob- 
tain, a wine that costs them not more than 35 cents per gal- 
lon, and sell it to their customers at 10 cents per glass, taking 
good care to furnish the smallest glasses they can get besides, 
so that what costs them 35 cents, is retailed to their customers 
at $6.00 per gallon. These exorbitant rates deter nearly 
every one from drinking wine, a bottle is broken into, stands 
for a day opened, and if the wine had any quality before, it is 
apt to loose it entirely, before another is willing to pay ten 
cents for such stuff. This brings our wine into bad repute,, 
and works directly against its consumption and use. 

The other is the prevailing custom of " treating." Four or 

five men are called to the bar by a friend to " take a drink," 

for which he pays. The others feel under a sort of moral 

obligation to do likewise; and so five or six drinks are swal- 

24 



368 GRAPE CULTUKE AND 

lowed, very often against their inclination, but simply because 
no one wishes to appear mean or stingy, and some of them 
feel "elevated" as they call it, before the round is fairly 
made. Many a young man is thus led into the paths of dis- 
sipation, because he does not "want to be behind." If we 
had good, respectable wine houses or wine rooms, where they 
could sit at a table, have a bottle of wine between them, or 
several, of which each paid his share, they would derive more 
enjoyment, it would cost much less, and they would depart 
sober. This is the custom in Europe, and the people are 
better contented and more sober over it. Treating is an 
American custom, but one of which we have little reason to be 
proud, and which, as a progressive people, we ought to 
abolish. 

The saloons which act directly against our interests as be- 
fore mentioned, we should leave severely alone. We can 
never hope to be a prosperous and sober people, as long as 
we let them take the advantage of us, and of the wine drink- 
ing community, in such a manner. In Napa valley, nearly 
every one can buy from the producer good, wholesome white 
wine or claret, in five gallon kegs, attwenty-five cents per gal- 
lon, or five cents per bottle. Let each family take a five-gal- 
lon keg, bottle it, and drink it at home, instead of paying $6 
per gallon to the saloon keeper for wine, or for stale beer at 
$3 per gallon. It is as cheap as tea or coffee, even cheaper, 
they can all enjoy it at lunch or supper, and it will certainly 
do them more good, and be better than the average they get 
at the saloons. And when it is so abundant and cheaj), so 
easily attainable, there is no cause for its improper use or 
abuse, the children will learn to drink it as part of their daily 
diet, and there will be no craving for more than is good for 
them. Wine, unlike other alcoholic liquors, does not, in its 
natural light state, create the craving for more, as whiskey or 
brandy does. It quenches thirst, helps digestion, enlivens 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 369 

and invigorates. A glass of wine early in the morning, I have 
found an unfailing preventative against Malaria, have used it 
for thirty-five years now, in preference to quinine or whiskey, 
and with better results. 

I have worked in the cause of true temperance, as I under- 
stand it, which is "moderation in everything," nearly a life 
time, and if I did not believe that wine was the best temper- 
ance agent that we can employ, but apt to lead to drunken- 
ness, I would quit the business at once, so great is my desire 
to see the American people the greatest and the freest on 
earth, which they can only be if they become also the most 
sober nation. I see in the free and moderate use of light 
wine the only help and salvation for us, and the best element 
to further us in every progressive step we take. I have grown 
up among its people, helped to defend it in times of war, and 
hope to die on, and be buried in, its free soil. To contribute 
my mite to its true progress, has been the dreamof my youth, 
the fond ambition of riper years. And now, when the snows 
of lifes winter begin to gather on my head, I still look forth to 
our beloved industry to help make it what it seems to me 
destined to be, the soberest, the freest, the happiest, and the 
greatest nation on earth. It may be but the dream of an 
enthusiast, and I may not see its fuUfilment, but I have abid- 
ing faith in the ultimate result. Let me not be misunder- 
stood, however. I am with the promoters of /r//^ temperance 
in every just ^aid. legal means they can apply, to prevent and 
abolish drunkenness. I am in favor of the most stringent 
laws against it. Let us make drunkenness a crime, and pun- 
ish it as such. Let every man who is found in a state of in- 
toxication, be punished as a criminal against the laws of God 
and mankind, let the finger of scorn and contumely be pointed 
at him as an outcast from the [society of decent men and 
women, and the vice made a by-word and reproach through- 
out the land, as a disc^race on the fair Lice of humanity. 



370 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

But I deny that you have a right to punish the innocent with 
the guilty ; a right to control the free and sober citizens of 
this republic from the enjoyment of a pure healthy glass of 
wine, beneficial to them, and necessary to their well being, 
because some of their neighbors get drunk on bad whisky, 
and even on wine. Where would be our boasted liberties, if 
one man was punished for the crime of another ? Can I be 
held responsible for my neighbor's actions, and should I be 
punished because he makes a beast of himself? Out on such 
narrow mindedness, which can bear neither the test of com- 
mon justice and fairness, nor of our constitution. Every pro- 
hibitory measure is an infringement of justice as well, as of 
the supreme law of the land. 

I wish to see every man or woman a free agent, subject 
only, if he or she infringes the laws, which ought to be and 
are, based on fairness and right, to be punished according to 
these laws. And let me tell those, who wish to shackle us by 
binding them according to their narrow prejudices, that if 
they desire really to see this a sober and prosperous nation, 
they can sooner gain their object by making this nation a 
wine drinking community, then by all the cast iron measures 
they may invent to compel an abstinence, which will only 
lead to greater excess. Teach the nation the proper use of 
light wines, instead of raving against their abuse, and you will 
do more for the cause of true temperance, in five years, than 
you can do by prohibitory laws in a century. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 371 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY. 

I do not claim to be a prophet, nor the son of one, there- 
for all predictions of the future must be guess work to a cer- 
tain extent. But when I look at the incipient beginnings 
scarcely forty-five years ago, with no knowledge of varieties, 
mode of treatment and culture, no knowledge of wine making 
here ; and then consider the results already obtained during 
that short period, I cannot but feel the brighest hopes for the 
future. We have the finest climate in the world for the 
growth of grajpes, we are sure of their maturing every season ; 
we know of no total failures, we are gaining in experience every 
year, our skill and knowledge increases, we have American 
ingenuity and enterprise, with the industry of the German, 
French and Portuguese ; in short, the intellects and muscular 
strength of all nations engaged in the busines ; — why should 
we not make it a grand success, and claim the world for a 
market, as the French have done for their clarets and cham- 
pagne, the Germans for their Hock and Moselle, the Spaniards 
and the Portuguese for their Ports and Sherries .? We can 
make all these, and as good as they can, if we only apply our- 
selves to the task. We have an immense territory adapted to 
the successful growth of the vine ; our raisin makers have 
proven already that they can produce as good raisins as any 
country, and we can raise better, more attractive and cheaper 
shipping grapes, which will keep better with proper treatment 
than those of any country, and for which we have a market 
on this continent. What should hinder us from becoming 
the greatest grape growing nation on earth } France had 
reached a production of one billion five hundred million gal- 



372 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Ions per annum, until the phylloxera devastated her vineyards 
for all of which she found a market, at home and abroad. 
What is our annual production say 15,000,000 gallons, com- 
pared with this ? Yet we claim that we have more territory 
adapted to the successful growth of grapes than France. Yet 
we talk of over production, and we may have it until neces- 
sity compels us to put forth our best energies and intellect, to 
develop new markets and extend the old, to produce the best 
of every class, until we can proudly say, that we are ahead of 
them all, as we should be. We have capital enough laying 
idle in the State ; it can surely find a better and safer invest- 
ment in our products, than in wheat or grain. But we must 
convince them of this first. We are just now in a transitory 
state \ from the first crude beginnings we emerged at once in- 
to a condition of great prosperity, when the demand exceeded 
the supply, and our merchants had to buy anything they could 
find, to meet it, and pay comparatively high prices for wines and 
grapes. This encouraged every body, Tom, Dick and Harry, 
to go into vineyards ; the capitalist thought it a fine invest- 
ment for his ready cash, the laborer for his muscle, and the 
small means a few years of toil had enabled him to lay back; 
few of them with any practical knowledge, or an idea how 
long it would take to realize. That this should create a mo- 
mentary production of inferior grades, is but natural. That 
it should also shake the confidence of a great many, who 
looked only at the immediate results of their own thoughtless- 
ness, could also be expected. Viticulture is not a mere side 
show, or an occupation to fill an idle hour ; nor will success 
come at the mere expense of money without thought. It is 
an occupation which demands, as much or more so as any 
other, close application, constant attention and work of brain 
as well as hand. Thousands may and will get tired of it, drop 
by the way side, and make room in the ranks for those better 
fitted than they were ; but we are better off without them.. 



WINE-MAKIXG IN CALIFORNIA. 373 

Those who persevere, who have for their motto "Excelsior," 
whom no momentary reverse can repress, no obstacle discour- 
age, who love the occupation, not alone for the pecuniary 
gain it may bring, but who delight in the very labor it costs 
them, will be sure to meet with success in the end. 

We have a number of new enterprises to aid our industry, 
which have just sprung into life. Wine storage houses, con- 
centration of must, and a number of new firms going into the 
trade, with better and cheaper facilities for shipping. Some 
of these may not be successful at first; there are difficulties 
to overcome in every new industry, but they will be success- 
ful in the end, and if some should fail, because not fitted for 
the task, others will take it up and succeed. Better methods 
to make and age our wines will be found, the wants of 
peculiar localities and the adaptation of their products to cer- 
tain classes of wine will be clearly defined, and with each 
succeeding year we will be better prepared and qualified 
for the next. 

Therefore I can see no ground for discouragement, no rea- 
son why we should not say to those who are willing to make 
this State their home, and labor with us with hand and brain 
and steadfast purpose, " Come and join us;" we have mil- 
lions of acres yet laying idle, which will yield their smiling 
returns to you, and offer a healthy and pleasant field for you 
and your children. 

Our State authorities and State institutions see the im- 
portance of the industry and are willing to help it along. 
We have the State Board of Viticulture, the Agricultural 
College at the State University, the State Wine Growers' 
Association, and the numerous local clubs, all doing good 
work in their proper sphere, and co-operating to make our 
fund of common knowledge greater and more available to 
every individual by their instructive publications. And we 
have the Press with us; we must not forget, but gratefully re- 



374 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

member that they have not failed to speak a good word for 
our occupation, and distributed all the knowledge they could 
collect, to our readers. 

Why, with all these advantages, should we not reach, at 
the beginning of the new century, a production of seventy-five 
million gallons, instead of sixteen million now, and be able 
to find a ready market for them, while our raisins and table 
grapes have driven those of other nations from our markets 
on this continent. They belong to us by right, as soon as 
we can furnish as good a product, and we ought to occupy 
them. That we will do so eventually, is my firm belief; I 
hope that the sun of 1900 may rise on the most prosperous 
wineland the world ever saw, on the most prosperous, happy 
and sober commonwealth on the shores of the Pacific, the 
Golden State of California, richer in her golden wine and 
fruits than its mines ever made it. 

Reader, my task is ended. If this little volume, which 
has cost the author many an anxious hour and thought by day 
and night, should help to bring about this glorious result, and 
you should think as kindly of him, as he does of all his vit- 
icultural brethren, he is nobly paid, though he may then rest 
in California's soil, removed from all earthly labors. But as 
long as life is spared him, il will be devoted to our noble in- 
dustry, with a love that never falters or fails. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 875 



CHAPTER XIX. 

WINE SONGS. 

" Wine makes glad the heart of man." It is therefore not 
surprising that all wine producing nations have had poets who 
have glorified their favorite beverage in song, and that singing 
and merriment prevails during the vintage. But none has 
more of them than Germany, the fatherland of song; while 
America is singularly deficient in them, and as far as I know, 
California, the coming "Vineland " of the old legend, has not 
yet produced any. Let us hope that the innocent hilarity, 
the poetic sentiment which good wine inspires, will induce 
some of our poets to immortalize themselves and glorify their 
State and its noblest product in song. My poetic vein. If I 
ever had one, has long ceased to flow, or I would try. But 
at the conclusion of a book devoted to grape culture and wine 
making, I cannot forego the pleasure of quoting a few transla- 
tions of German wine songs, nearly as good as the original, 
and hope that in the next "improved and enlarged edition," 
if this little volume should meet with favor enough to need 
one, I can have the pleasure to add some California lyric, by 
native poets. 

FATHER NOAH, THE FIRST WINE GROWER. 

When- Noah left his floating frame, 

Our Lord to Father Noah came ; 

He prized his pious offering, 

And spake: 'Thou'st done a goodly thing, 

And, to reward thy piety, 

Thou may'st e'en choose a boon from me." 



376 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Then to the Lord old Noah said : 

" The water now tastes rather bad, 

The whilst there have been drowned therein 

All beasts and mankind in their sin ; 

'Tis, therefore, Lord, I even think, 

I should prefer some other drink," 

Whereat the Lord to Eden went, 

And brought him thence the grape vine's plant 

And gave him counsel and advice 

To tend this shrub of Paradise, 

And bid him nurse it carefully; — 

It pleased old Noah wondrously ! 

He made a solemn household call, 
And summoned wife and child and all, 
And planted vines, where'er they'd grow ; 
Forsooth, old Noah was not slow, — 
He pressed the grape and built a cave, 
And put it into casks to save. 

Old Noah, grateful for the boon. 

Cask upon cask did open soon, 

And with sincerest piety 

Did empty them most willingly, 

And drank yet, since the flood was o'er, . 

Three hundred years, and fifty more. 

This to each prudent man does show 
From drinking wine no harm can flow, 
And Christian folks it warns more o'er, 
No water in their wine to pour, 
The whilst there have been drowned therein 
All beasts and mankind in their sin. 

From the German of Kopish, trandated by I. A. Schmidt. 



AVINE-MAKING IX CALIFORNIA. 377 

[German Text by Gruner. Translated by J. A. Smith.] 

NOAH'S LEGACY. 

When Noah felt approach his end 
He said: "I'll make my testament." 
He counted over all his stocks, 
His cattle, donke3's, goats and bucks ; 
The sheep, camels, and all the rest 
Witli which so richly he Avas blessed. 

This done he said, " I wish to see 
At once my friend the Notary." 
To him, he spoke, " Yon shall divide 
My property. Now do it right ; 
Let all my children have their share, 
And take yourself what's just and fair." 

Thus they divided all. But still, 
Before the lawyer signed the will, 
(He was, as clerks in average, 
Fond of a pleasant beverage.) 
He said: "But now, beloved sir, 
AVho of your Wine shall be the heir ?" 

Said Noah : " In daylight and here 
We can't decide that question, dear ! 
Let to the cellar us descend, 
And see, how there the case may stand. 
Don't fear pains ! " " What my duty^is," 
The lawyer said, " I never miss." 

A generous man old Noah was, 

And freely filled the lawyers glass. 

They drew a sample every where ; 

They tasted here, they tasted there, 

And when they had the stock gone through. 

Took an inventory anew\ 

Back came to Noah youth and life, 

He thought no more of child and wife. 

" Dear friend," said he, " now put that down. 



378 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

And liead it with a golden crown ; 
Of all the wine which here you see, 
The Human Race the heir shall be." 

No death bell ! Let the goblets ring ! 
And jolly boys my requiem sing. 
Each cask filled with the golden wane, 
Shall be a monument of mine. 
Write this and make, dear notary, 
Eternal thus my memory." 

The following acquires a peculiar significance to me, as I 
look back through the past, and think of the genial spirit now- 
laid at rest, old " Father Muench " as he was familiarly called 
by his friends. One of the pioneers of German descent, in 
Missouri, who served his adopted State in her legislative halls 
as well, and by his numerous writings in various fields of 
literature, with all the enthusiasm of a polished and patriotic 
soul, he was one of the first who followed the then new in- 
dustry of grape culture, and his earliest beginnings date back 
to 1846. His " American Vintners School," a text book for 
the beginner, attained a deserved popularity, and was trans- 
lated from the German, in which language it was originally 
wTitten. Warm personal friends as we were, I often had the 
pleasure of meeting him among the vines, and at his own 
pleasant homestead. At my farewell visit in 1 881, he ex- 
pressed the wish to " die in harness," without any previous 
illness. This wish was gratified by an all wise Providence. 
He was found among his beloved vines; one pleasant winter's 
morning, dead, with the pruning shears yet in his hand, in 
his 84th year. Peace be to his memory. One of the best 
and most genial of men, he yet lives in the grateful remem- 
brance of his many friends. 



WINE-MAKING IN CALIFORNIA. 379 

AMERICAN VINTNERS SONG. 

BY FREDERICK MUENCH (fAR WEST.) 

[Tran.'^lated from the German by Mrs. Wistar.] 

Plant the vine, plant the vine ! 
Gen'rous font of ruby wine; 
In the sunlight gladly playing 
Richly all your toil repaying, 
Will the smiling clusters shine. 

Eve and dawn, eve and dawn, 
Siill must find us working on, . 
Digging, pruning, cutting, binding. 
Round their props the tendrils winding 
Sweet the mete of labor done. 

Sun and air, sun and air ! 
Leafy green, and odors fair ; 
Then the berries, luscious treasure 
Fill the inmost soul with pleasure, 
Leaves and fruit and blossoms fair. 

Then at last, then at last ! 

Left below, our labors past. 

Let us, o'er the mountains straying 

Where the air's mild breath is playing 

Down the vale our glances cast. 

Gather in, gather in ! 

Let our harvest now begin ; 

Now the purple juice, dark, glowing. 

Full and free in streams is flowing, 

Young and old, come gather in. 

Hear it foam, hear it foam ! 

Surging in its narrow home, 

Let it seethe and bubble rightly 

Till it sparkles clear and brightly 

Here, within its narrow home. '. 



380 GRAPE CULTURE AND 

Now come on, now come on ! 
For our liardest task is done, 
Now we. pour the wines rich treasure, 
Gods might envy us the pleasure, 
Clink your glasses every one. 

Freedoms land, freedoms land I 
Where anew my home I planned 
Lo ! I drink to thee, brave nation, 
Comra.des, join in this ovation 
Hail ! our chosen fatherland. 



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